OF  THE 


UNIX 


OF 


f 


Pt.  o  t  i  n  Co ttb n.. 


A  Uoofc  for  Every  Cultivator  of  the  Soil  Adapted 
to  the  Great  Staples. 


WALL'S 


SOUTHERN  UNITED  STATES, 


BY 


MAJOR  B.   a.  WALL,   OF   MISSISSIPPI, 
\\ 

PRACTICAL  PLANTER, 

3  raduate  of  the  Virginia  Military  Institute;  late  Civil  Engineer  and  Su- 
perintendent on  the  Southside  and  the  Mississippi  Central 
Railroads ;  and  during  the  late  war,  Major  in  the 
18th  Regiment  of  Virginia  Volunteers, 
(Gen.  Lee's)  Army  Northern 
Virginia. 


tor  MEMPHIS: 

•SOUTHWESTERN  PUBLISHING  COMPANY,  361   MAIN  STREET. 
1870. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1870,  by 

MAJOR  E.  G.  WALL, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  United  States  Court  for  the  District  of 
West  Tennessee. 


0  5 


TO   THE  HEADER. 


^Thc  authorj  in  submitting  this  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 
to  the  people  of  the  Southern  States,  hopes  to  meet  the  almost 
Universal  desire  for  information  upon'  the  subject  of  which  it 
treats.  It  is  due  to  the  public,  that  the  author  should  distinctly 
state,  that  the  facts,  illustrations,  experiments >  and  information 
herein  contained,  have  been  drawn  from  the  most  recent  and 
reliable  authorities,  and  from  his  own  experience  as  a  farmer. 
Credit  is  given  in  the  introduction  to  the  authorities  quoted, 
and,  also,  to  some  extent,  in  the  body  of  the  book,  Not  being 
satisfied  with  the  best  written  authority,  the  author  submitted 
his  manuscript  to  the  inspection  of  Dr,  E,  ~W.  HILGARD, 
Professor  of  Chemistry  at  the  University  of  Mississippi,  and 
late  Geologist  for  the  State  of  Mississippi,  for  revision  and 
correction — with  what  result  the  accompanying  Jitter  testifies : 

UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSISSIPPI,  OXFORD  Miss.,  October  29,  1869. 
MA*.  E.  G.  WALLJ 

Dear  Sir — I  have  perused  With  much  pleasure  the  manuscript  of  your 
FARMER'S  MANUAL.  Combining,  as  it  does,  sound  theory  with  correct 
practice,  it  cannot  fail  to  be  eminently  useful  to  the  class  for  whom  it  is 
designated — the  old-time  planter,  as  well  ns  the  new-comer,  who  never 
eaw  cotton,  tobacco,  or  sweet  potatoes,  grow*  It  is  high  time  that  all 
agriculturists  should  understand  that  they  have  as  much  need  of 
"using  their  brains,"  as  you  express  it,  as  the  carpenter,  the  masonj 
or  any  other  artisan;  indeed,  from  the  more  varied  nature  of  the1 
materials  they  work,  the  necessity  for  a  full  understanding  of  the  object 
of  each  agricultural  operation,  and  the  exercise  of  a  discriminating 
judgment,  is  even  greater,  if  they  would  not  be  left  behind  in  the  race  of 
progress.  I  trust  your  little  book  will  go  far  towards  opening  the  eyes  of 


M370460 


4  PREFACE. 

the  candid  opponents  of  "Book  Farming"  amongst  us  to  the  fact  that 
scientific  agriculture  consists,  not  in  the  indiscriminate  practice  of  Utopian 
notions,  but  in  working  according  to  the  best  lights  afforded  by  the 
combined  experience  of  past  ages.  And  so  I  wish  the  forthcoming  volume 

God  speed! 

Very  respectfully  yours, 

EUG.  W.  HILGARD. 

The  author  is  not  unmindful  of  the  ordeal  through  which 
his  work  must  pass,  yet  he  confidently  trusts  its  merits  will,  in 
consequence,  the  more  fully  appear,  whilst  its  faults  will  prove 
such  as  rather  to  stimulate  investigation,  and  thereby  improve 
the  general  stock  of  knowledge  upon  the  subject  of  which  it 
treats. 

Respectfully,  etc., 

E.  G,  WALL,  Mississippi. 


PA.RT    I 


CHAP  TEE    I. 

THE    REASONS     WHY     A     WORK     OF    THIS    KIND    SHOULD 
BE    READ. 

Tho  author  of  this  MANUAL  has  endeavored  to 
supply  a  want  deeply  felt  by  himself  in  his  first 
experience  as  a  farmer ;  and,  as  far  as  his  knowledge 
now  extends,  this  want  still  exists  with  many  others. 
All  those  who  are  about  to  enter  upon  the  ennobling 
pursuit  of  agriculture,  and  even  those  who  have 
had  long  experience  as  farmers,  will  find,  we  are 
persuaded,  embodied  in  the  work,  facts,  experiments, 
and  illustrations,  well  worthy  of  their^most  earnest 
consideration. 

In  the  present  condition  of  the  Southern  States, 
with  labor  fluctuating  and  uncertain,  the  high  price 
of  provisions,  and  the  thousand  and  one  difficulties 
which  meet  the  farmer  at  every  turn,  renders  it 
absolutely  necessary  that  he  should  call  into  requi- 
sition all  the  aid  which  science,  the  arts,  and  the 
experience  of  others,  can  yield  him. 

The  author  is  aware  that  it  is  common  for  the 
so-called  "practical  farmer"  to  sneer  at  and  deride 
the  "book  farmer;"  with  what  justice  one  or  two 
examples  will  illustrate.  Take,  for  instance,  Dr.  M. 
W«.  Philips,  of  Hinds  county,  Mississippi.  We  find, 
for  thirty  successive  crops,  made  before  the  war, 
that  he  averaged  eight  bales  of  cotton  to  the  hand. 


C  WALL'S   MANUAL 

His  first  crop,  on  freshly  cleared  land,  was  the  least  : 
six  bales  to  the  hand ;  his  largest,  thirteen  bales  to 
the  hand.  His  average  per  acre,  throughout  the 
succession  of  years,  was  one  bale  to  the  acre  of  land 
planted.  Dr.  Philips  was  a  "book  farmer."  Now, 
let  us  take  another  example :  Mr.  David  Dickson, 
from  near  Sparta,  Georgia.  Mr.  Dickson,  on  old 
cotton  lands,  by  plucli  and  intelligence,  has,  since 
the  war,  made  an  average  of  two  thousand  three 
hundred  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre.  We  say  by 
pluck,  because  it  requires  courage  for  any  man  to 
change  from  the  usual  manner  of  making  a  crop, 
and  to  spend  twelve  dollars  per  acre  for  fertilizers  to 
bring  his  land  up  to  the  point  of  making  a  bale  and 
one- fourth  to  the  acre.  We  say  intelligence,  for  it 
requires  brains  in  any  man  to  so  manure  and  work 
his  lands  as  to  brine:  about  such  results.  He  not 

O 

only  produced  these  crops,  but  left  his  land  in  a 
greatly  improved  condition  for  succeeding  crops. 

The  question  naturally  presents  itself  to  the  mind 
of  every  intelligent  farmer :  By  what  means  can  my 
lands  be  made  to  produce  such  crops?  We  answer: 
By  pluck  and  brains ;  courage  to  procure  fertilizers, 
and  intelligence  to  apply  them.  It  requires  no 
small  decree  of  courage  to  face  the  ridicule  of  our 

o  o 

neighbors,  for  if  we  should  happen  to  fail  in  but  one 
experiment,  although  we  may  have  succeeded  in 
twenty,  we  wTill  be  laughed  at. 

For  the  encouragement  of  all  who  wish  to  try 
experiments,  we  will  tell  how  some  of  the  greatest 
inventors  and  experimenters  of  the  world  have  been 
laughed  at  and  derided.  Watt,  the  inventor  of  the 
s'eam  engine,  was  thought  to  be  deranged,  and  his 


OF     AGRICULTURE. 

friends  wished  to  place  him  in  a  mad- house.  This 
powerful  agent,  steam,  in  a  little  more  than  a  half  a 
century,  is  whirling  people  over  the  land  at  the  rate 
of  from  twenty  to  fifty  miles  per  hour.  Steamships 
cross  the  Atlantic  Ocean  in  eleven  to  thirteen  days, 
when  in  former  times  it  took  a  sail- vessel  from  six 
weeks  to  three  months  to  make  the  passage  from 
]STew  York  to  Liverpool.  Morse,  the  inventor  of 
the  magnetic  telegraph,  how  was  he  treated?  He 
appeared  before  the  Congress  of  the  United  States 
with  his  models  and  plans ;  he  informed  that  body  of 
statesmen  that  by  means  of  a  magnetic  battery,  an 
insulated  wire,  and  an  instrument,  he  could  send  a 
message  by  electricity  from  Washington  City  to 
Baltimore  in  an  instant  of  time.  Congress  gave  him 
no  encouragement ;  one  of  its  sapient  members  said, 
"he  wished  to  send  a  message  to  the  man  in  the 
moon."  In  less  than  six  months  afterwards,  messages 
were  flying  on  the  "  wings  of  the  lightning  "  to  and 
from  all  our  most  important  cities.  Now,  in  about 
one- fourth  of  a  century,  the  world  itself  is  belted  by 
this  wonderful  wire,  and  messages  are  sent  from  San 
Francisco,  California,  to  London,  England,  a  distance 
of  six  thousand  miles,  in  two  minutes.  Then,  why 
fear  ridicule  ?  You  can  say  with  Dr.  Philips  and  Mr. 
Dickson,  "  he  who  wins  can  laugh." 

To  the  mind  of  every  intelligent  farmer,  it  must 
occur  that  some  change  is  necessary  in  our  system  of 
agriculture. 

It  is  the  object  of  this  work  to  collect  together 
and  compile  facts,  experiments,  and  illustrations,  in 
such  a  form  that  they  can  be  applied  practically,  to 
the  every  day  work  of  the  farm.  The  time  has 


8  WALL'S    MANUAL 

arrived  when  it  is  cheaper  and  better  to  renovate 
old,  and  comparatively  worn  out  lands,  than  to  clear 
fresh  lands.  No  country  on  the  face  of  the  wide 
earth  begins  to  improve  permanently  in  agriculture 
until  that  time  has  arrived.  As  long  as  fresh  fields- 
can  be  cleared,  and  wood  land  is  cheap,  the  farmer 
will  abandon  his  old  lands  rather  than  improve 
them  ;  but  now,  when  it  costs  more  to  clear  one  acre 
than  improve  it,  we  may  confidently  expect  to  see 
great  improvement  in  farming. 

Nothing  pays  the  farmer  a  better  per  centage  on 
the  investment  than  manure.  The  best  farmer  is  not 
he  who  cultivates  the  largest  number  of  acres  to  the 
hand,  but  he  who  raises  the  best  and  largest  crops  upon 
a  given  number  of  acres.  The  soil  is  somewhat  like 
the  man  or  beast — work  it  without  nourishment  it 
dies,  or  becomes  worthless.  The  subject  of  improv- 
ing the  soil  is  now  engaging  the  most  earnest 
attention  of  our  best  farmers,  and  wherever  manure 
has  been  intelligently  applied  it  has  paid  at  least  one 
hundred  per  cent,  upon  the  investment. 

The  farm  is  a  great  laboratory,  and  all  those 
changes  in  matter,  w^hich  it  is  the  farmer's  chief 
business  to  produce,  are  of  a  chemical  nature ;  hence 
the  value  of  at  least  a  limited  knowledge  of  chemical 
laws.  The  farmer  breaks  up  and  pulverizes  his  soil 
with  the  plow,  harrow,  and  hoe,  for  the  same  reason 
that  the  practical  chemist  powders  his  minerals  with 
pestle  and  mortar — to  expose  the  materials  more 
perfectly  to  the  action  of  chemical  agents. 

To  determine  the  best  method  of  improving  the 
soil ;  to  economize  the  natural  sources  of  fertility  ; 
to  test  the  purity  and  value  of  commercial  manures. 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  9 

and  beds  of  marl  and  muck ;  to  mingle  composts, 
and  adapt  them  to  special  crops;  to  improve  the 
quality  of  grain  and  fruit ;  and  to  rear  and  feed 
stock  in  the  best  manner,  farmers  require  at  least  a 
degree  of  knowledge  of  chemistry*  Nor  can  they,  as 
a  class,  much  longer  afford  to  be  without  it;  for  it 
has  always  been  found  that  the  application  of 
scientific  principles  to  any  branch  of  industry  puts 
power  into  the  hands  of  the  intelligent,  to  drive 
ignorance  from  the  field  of  competition, 

As  an  illustration  of  the  foregoing  remarks,  let  us 
examine  one  of  the  investigations  of  Dr,  Sprengel 
in  reference  to  rust  in  wheat  The  close  and  long 
continued  researches  of  Dr.  Sprengel  led  to  the 
conclusion  that  an  excess  of  iron- salts,  and  especially 
of  the  phosphate  of  iron,  greatly  favored  the  growth 
of  red-rust  on  the  leaves  and  stalks  of  wheat,  and 
other  cereals,  A  soil  in  the  vicinity  of  Brunswick, 
that  did  not  lack  drainage,  but  lime,  was  remarkable 
for  growing  wheat  and  barley,  always  attacked,  and 
generally  blighted,  by  rust.  A  quantity  of  this  soil 
was  taken  into  a  field  generally  free  from  this 
ruinous  parasite,  to  form  an  artificial  soil  fifteen 
inches  in  depth.  Wheat  planted  in  this  soil  was 
badly  injured  by  rust,  while  that  grown  all  around  it 
in  the  same  field  was  free  from  the  malady.  Dr. 
Sprengel,  by  careful  analysis,  found  a  fraction  over 
a  half  per  cent,  of  the  phosphate  of  iron  in  the  soil, 
with  only  a  trace  of  lime  uncombined  with  silicic 
acid.  As  free  lime  will  take  phosphoric  acid  away 
from  iron,  and  indirectly  convert  iron  into  the 
harmless  peroxide,  and  at  the  same  time  produce  a 
1* 


10  WALL'S    MANUAL 

valuable  fertilizer,  the  phosphate  of  lime — liming  was 
prescribed,  and  ihe  cure  was  perfect. 

To  decry  such  investigations  by  skillful  chemists,  i» 
to  defy  the  laws  of  nature,  an  occupation  which  finds 
too  much  favor  with  farmers,  who  do  not  make  use 
of  the  brains  God  has  given  them, 

As  discoveries  multiply,  and  information  becomes* 
diffused,  those  farmers  who  decline  to  inquire  into 
the  principles  which  govern  their  vocation,  will  have 
occasion  to  groan  more  deeply  than  ever  over  the 
unprofitableness  of  agriculture. 

In  all  parts  of  the  brief  outline  here  given,  the 
author  will  aim  to  be  as  concise  as  is  consistent  with 
clearness.  Much  that  wrill  be  written  is  intended  as 
merely  suggestive.  The  leading  design  is  to  present 
the  great  principles  of  science  which  are  clearly 
connected  with  agriculture -T  and  to  show  how  these 
principles  are  involved  in  the  daily  operations  of 
the  farm. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  farmer  will  find  many  things 
so  presented  to  his  mind  as  to  inspire  him  with 
renewed  ardor  in  his  honorable  profession,  and  at  the 
same  time  enable  him  to  pursue  it  with  increased 
pleasure.  No  profession  or  business  can  ever  give 
much  mental  satisfaction  to  the  man  engaged  in  itr 
unless  he  has,  first,  a  clear  view  of  the  principles 
wThich  form  the  basis  of  his  operations ;  and  secondly, 
a  distinct  understanding  of  the  relation  between  these 
principles  and  his  own  practice. 

The  author,  in  writing  and  compiling  this  work,  is 
greatly  indebted  to  Dana's  Muck  Manual,  Camp- 
bell's Agriculture,  Waring' s  Elements  of  Agriculture, 
Norton's  Chemistry,  Youmaii's  Chemistry,  Rogers7 


O  F     A  G  R  I  C  U  L  T  U  R  E  .  11 

Chemistry,  and  various  Agricultural  Reports  of  the 
Patent  Office. 

The  author  hereby  acknowledges  his  deep  and 
lasting  obligation  to  Dr.  Eugene  AY.  Hilgard,  formerly 
Geologist  of  the  State  of  Mississippi,  and  now  Pro- 
fessor of  Chemistry  in  the  University  of  that  State, 
at  Oxford,  for  his  kindness  in  revising  the  Chemical 
part  of  this  work,  and  for  the  information  and  aid 
received  from  his  able  and  interesting  Report  of  the 
Geology  and  Agriculture  of  Mississippi,  made  in  18GO. 

The  author  also  expresses  his  gratitude  to  Dr. 
Smith,  the  Analytical  Chemist  for  the  State  of 
Mississippi,  for  his  kindness  in  comparing  the 
analyses  of  the  plants  contained  in  this  work,  with 
the  analyses  of  the  same  plants  as  published  in 
Professor  Liebig's  recent  work  on  agriculture,  and 
not  yet  translated  into  the  English  language. 

Hoping  to  meet  the  almost  universal  demand  for 
information  on  the  subject  of  agriculture  at  the 
South,  the  author  respectfully  submits  this  book 
to  the  reading  and  thinking  farmer,  and  to  the 
public  at  large. 


CHAPTER    II. 

SOURCES  FROM  WHICH   PLANTS  DERIVE  THEIR   NOURISH- 
MENT. 

It  has  been  ascertained  by  analysis  that  plants  are 
composed  of  two  sets  of  elements :  the  "organic  ele- 
ments," which  are  volatile,  and  disappear  during  com- 


12  WALL'S    MANUAL 

bustion;  the  "inorganic,  or  mineral  elements,"  which 
remain  after  the  burning  of  the  plant,  and  constitute 
allies.  These  two  classes  seem  equally  necessary  to 
the  healthy  growth  and  full  development  of  the  plant. 
They  are  the  food  of  the  plant,  as  they  are  taken  up 
by  it  while  growing. 

Plants  do  not  get  ALL  their  food  from  the  soil  on  which 
they  grow,  as  many  suppose.  The  soil  and  the  air 
both  furnish  nourishment  to  growing  crops.  Through 
its  roots  the  plant  is  in  constant  contact  with  the  soil, 
and  through  its  leaves  it  is  in  contact  with  the  air. 
The  roots  are  so  constructed  as  to  be  able  to  take  up 
from  the  soil  such  food  as  is  required  from  that  source, 
whenever  it  is  found  there  in  proper  condition.  But 
all  substances  absorbed  by  the  roots  must  be  rendered 
soluble,  as  the  organs  can  take  up  matter  only  in  a 
liquid  form. 

The  mineral  elements,  being  non-volatile,  are  not 
found  in  the  air;  therefore,  they  must  be  derived  from 
the  soil  alone.  Besides  these,  the  soil  must  have  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  water  or  acids  to  dissolve  what- 
ever is  required  by  the  plant.  The  soil  also,  generally, 
contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  organic  er  veg- 
etable matter.  This  vegetable  matter,  when3  well  rot- 
ted, is  called  "  HUMUS,  or  MOLD." 

Whence  do  plants  obtain  their  organic  elements  ? 
These,  as  we  will  show  hereafter,  are  chiefly  four — 
carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen.  The  carbon 
of  plants  is  derived  chiefly  (but  not  entirely)  from 
carbonic  acid.  This  gas  is  one  of  the  constituents  of 
the  atmosphere,  whether  the  air  is  collected  on  the 
top  of  the  highest  mountain  or  in  the  lowest  valley. 
Plants  have  the  power  of  absorbing  carbonic  acid  gas 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  13 

through  their  leaves.  When  vegetable  matter  in  the 
soil  undergoes  decay,  this  gas  is  freely  generated,  and, 
being  absorbed  by  the  water  in  the  soil,  is  conveyed 
abundantly  to  the  roots  of  growing  plants.  As  rain 
decends  through  the  air,  it  absorbs  a  considerable 
quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  conveys  it  to  the 
soil.  Thus,  we  find  both  the  atmosphere  and  the  soil 
to  contain  carbonaceous  food  for  plants.  Whether 
the  carbonic  acid  is  absorbed  by  the  roots  or  the 
leaves  of  the  plant,  it  circulates  through  the  plant  in 
solution  in  the  sap  ;  and  under  the  influence  of  light  it 
is  decomposed,  the  plant  retaining  the  carbon  and 
throwing  off  the  oxygen  through  its  leaves.  This  action 
goes  on  more  rapidly  under  the  direct  rays  of  the 
sun. 

Hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  supplied  to  plants  in  the 
form  of  water.  All  vegetable  compounds  contain 
hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  the  same  proportion  as  they 
unite  in  forming  water.  The  leaves  of  plants  can  absorb 
water  from  the  air ;  the  roots  always  absorb  it  from 
the  soil. 

Nitrogen  is  not  so  abundant  in  plants  as  the  other 
three  organic  elements ;  but  it  is  no  less  important, 
and  even  essential,  to  their  growth.  Ammonia  is,  no 
doubt,  the  chief  source  from  which  plants  get  their 
nitrogen.  Nitric  acid,  in  the  nitrates,  and  other 
nitrogen  compounds,  are  doubtless  sources  from  which 
this  important  element  is  often  derived.  Ammonia 
is  the  great  source  of  nitrogen  in  the  vegetable  world. 
Hence  the  great  value  of  Peruvian  guano. 

Ammonia  is  found  both  in  the  atmosphere  and  the 
soil.  From  the  atmosphere  it  is  carried  down  by  the 
rain  and  snow.  In  the  soil  it  is  formed  by  the  decay 


14  WALL'S   MANUAL 

of  sucli  animal  and  vegetable  compounds  us  contain 
nitrogen.  It  is  absorbed  and  retained  by  the  clay 
and  humus  or  mold  in  the  soil.  Some  plants  are 
believed  to  absorb  it  through  their  leaves,  from  the 
air;  but  in  most  cases  it  enters  through  the  roots 
from  the  soil. 

Although  nitrogen  is  so  abundant  as  the  chief  con- 
stituent of  the  atmosphere,  yet  it  rarely  or  never 
enters  directly,  in  its  pure  gaseous  form,  into  the 
plant.  In  contact  with  decaying  vegetable  matter  in 
the  soil,  nitrogen,  in  the  form  of  air,  unites  with 
hydrogen,  forming  ammonia.  The  ammonia  formed 
in  this  way,  as  well  as  that  formed  by  the  decay  of 
animal  matters,  are  again  decomposed  by  strong  bases, 
such  as  lime,  potash,  soda,  etc.  j  the  nitrogen  becom- 
ing oxydized,  forms  nitric  acid  (aquafortis),  while  the 
hydrogen  combining  with  oxygon,  becomes  water. 

The  nitric  acid,  or  aquafortis,  generated  as  above, 
combines  with  whatever  bases  may  be  present  in  the 
soil,  forming  nitrates.  Thus  are  formed  the  nitrate  of 
potash,  of  soda,  of  lime,  etc.  Nitre,  or  saltpetre,  is 
thus  often  formed  in  cultivated  lands,  whence  it  passes 
into  the  juices  of  plants.  This  fact  can  be  illustrated 
thus :  it  is  a  wTcll  known  fact  that  beets  and  tobacco 
grown  upon  strongly  manured  land,  and  also  rank 
plants  growing  on  manure  heaps,  such  as  henbane, 
thorn-apple,  etc.,  contain  so  much  nitre,  that  when 
dried  they  emit  sparks,  when  burning,  like  paper 
wrhich  has  been  dipped  into  a  solution  of  saltpetre. 

Nitric  acid  is  also  naturally  formed  by  the  passage 
of  electricity  through  the  atmosphere.  The  air  con- 
sists of  nitrogen  and  oxygen  mixed  together.  When 
an  electric  current  is  passed  through  a  quantity  of 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  15 

air,  a  portion  of  the  two  gases  unite  together  chem- 
ically; so  that  every  spark  that  passes,  a  small  portion 
of  nitric  acid  is  formed.  This  effect  can  be  produced 
by  an  electrical  machine.  A  flash  of  lightning  is 
nothing  more  than  a  large  electric  spark ;  and  hence, 
every  flash  that  crosses  the  air,  produces  along  its 
path  nitric  acid.  When  thunder-storms  are  frequent, 
much  nitric  acid  and  some  ammonia  is  formed  in  this 
way.  They  are  washed  down  by  rains,  in  which 
they  have  been  frequently  detected,  and  thus  reach 
the  soil,  when  the  acid  combines  with  potash,  soda, 
lime,  etc.,  and  form  nitrates. 

The  soil  and  the  air,  then,  are  the  great  fountains 
of  nourishment  for  the  vegetable  world.  The  soil 
provides  for  the  mineral  matter  carbonic  acid,  humus 
or  mold,  water,  ammonia  and  nitric  acid.  The  air. 
too,  provides  all  these,  except  the  mineral  matter, 
and  humus  or  mold. 


CHAP  TEE    III. 

HOW    PLANTS    VEGETATE    AND    GROW. 

Plants  and  animals  constitute  the  two  great  depart- 
ments of  organic  nature.  They  consist  of  those 
organs  necessary  to  sustain  life,  to  promote  growth, 
and  to  reproduce  their  own  species.  Plants,  as  well 
as  animals,  are  endowed  with  vitality ;  but  they  differ 
from  animals  in  not  possessing  sensation.  Skillful 
cultivation  always  increases  the  productiveness  of 


1C  \V  A  L  L  ;  S     MANUAL 

plants,  and  in  many  cases  improves  their  quality  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  render  what  was  once  worthless 
now  highly  valuable.  Apples,  potatoes,  and  toma- 
toes, are  examples  of  plants  reclaimed  from  a  wild 
and  almost  worthless  state,  to  one  of  the  highest  value 
and  importance. 

GERMINATION. 

The  plant  is  first  found  as  a  germ  in  the  seed  from 
which  it  springs.  For  example  :  place  a  bean  in  warm 
water,  and  let  it  remain  a  few  hours  until  it  becomes 
swollen ;  then  separate  the  two  lobes  of  which  it  is 
formed,  you  will  discover,  near  what  is  called  the 
"  eye,"  the  germ,  consisting  of  two  parts,  one  to  bo 
developed  into  roots  and  the  other  into  the  stalk  and 
leaves  of  the  plant.  When  a  seed  is  placed  in  a  moist, 
warm  soil,  it  soon  begins  to  swell  and  absorb  water, 
and  also  oxygen  from  the  air  mingled  with  the  soil. 
A  chemical  change  begins  at  once  within  the  seed,  by 
which  the  material  of  the  grain  is  so  modified  as  to 
become  the  food  of  the  young  plant.  By  fermenta- 
tion the  starch  and  gluten  in  the  seed  become  soluble, 
and  enters  into  the  circulation  of  the  germ,  which 
begins  to  expand  and  soon  bursts  the  seed.  It 
"sprouts,"  sending  forth  two  branches,  one  of  which 
turns  downward  and  puts  forth  roots;  the  other 
turns  upward,  to  seek  the  light  and  air,  and  is  soon 
developed  into  the  stalk  and  leaves.  In  the  mean- 
while the  grain  has  been  consumed,  the  plant  being 
now  able  to  obtain  nourishment  from  the  soil,  through 
its  roots,  and  from  the  air,  through  its  blades  or 
leaves. 

The  covering  of  the  seed  is  called  its  integument 


OF    AGRICULTURE.  17 

(bran);  the  starchy  part  within  the  "bran,"  and  sur- 
rounding the  gemij  is  called  the  albumen.  The  integu- 
ment and  albumen  together  form  the  seed-lobe.  When 

£3 

a  seed  consists  of  only  one  lobe,  it  is  called  a  one-lobed 
plant,  as  Indian  corn.  If  the  seed  has  two  lobes,  as- 
the  bean,  the  plant  is  called  a  two-lobed  plant. 

The  stems  of  plants  whose  seeds  have  only  one 
lobe,  increase  in  size  by  internal  growth.  Such  plants 
are  called  endogens'.  The  stems  of  plants  whose  seed 
have  two  lobes,  generally  grow  by  the  formation  of 
layers  on  the  outer  part  of  the  stem,  immediately 
beneath  the  bark,  or  by  external  growth.  These  are 
called  exogens.  The  grasses,  wheat,  corn,  palms,  and 
plants  generally  having  the  veins  of  their  leaves  par- 
allel, are  endogens.  Beans,  peas,  and  the  trees  and 
shrubs  of  our  forests  are  exogens. 

Tissues  of  Plants. — The  various  organs  of  plants  are 
composed  of  different  kinds  of  structure,  called  tissues. 
These  are  made  up  of  fibre  or  membrane;  or  both 
together.  There  are  five  kinds  of  tissue  :  first,  cellu- 
lar tissue  ;  second,  woody  tissue  ;  third,  vascular  tis- 
sue ;  fourth,  vasiform  tissue;  fifth,  laticiferous  tissue. 
Cellular  tissue  is  composed  of  minute  cells,  resting 
upon  and  pressing  against  each  other,  so  that  the  sidc^ 
where  they  meet  become  flattened,  and  give  to  the 
cell  a  somewhat  regular  form.  Woody  tissue  lias  a 
fibrous  structure,  the  fibres  being  in  the  form  of  slen- 
der tubes  overlapping  each  other  at  their  extremities. 
It  is  this  structure  which  gives  strength  to  wood,  and 
various  kinds  of  fibrous  materials  used  in  the  arts, 
such  as  flax,  hemp  and  cotton.  Vascular  tissue 
resembles  the  woody  in  external  form,  but  (lifters  in 
having  a  long,  slender  fibre  coiled  within  it  from  end 


18  WALL'S   MANUAL 

to  end.  Vasiform  tissue  consists  of  tubes  much  larger 
than  those  of  the  woody  fibre.  These  tubes  may 
be  seen  in  the  cross- section  of  oak  wood.  It  is 
chiefly  through  these  that  the  sap  passes  in  ascending 
from  the  roots  to  the  leaves.  Laticiferous  tissue  con- 
sists of  very  small  tubes  and  cells,  found  most  abun- 
dantly in  bark  and  leaves.  After  the  sap  has  been 
prepared  in  the  leaf  for  nourishing  the  plant,  it  is 
called  latex.  Those  vessels  of  the  leaf  in  which  this 
preparation  or  elaboration  goes  on,  and  those  which 
afterward  convey  the  latex  back  to  the  part  of  the 
plant  to  be  nourished^  by  it,  arc  formed  of  the  lati- 
eiferous  (latex)  tissue. 

These  various  kinds  of  tissues  hold  and  transmit 
the  fluids  of  the  plant,  the  different  tubes  and  cells 
having  no  communication  with  each  other  except 
through  minute  pores.  These  vessels  are  sometimes 
charged  with  liquid  matter,  and  sometimes  with  gases. 

BarL — The  bark  is  the  external  covering  of  the 
plant,  and  may  be  regarded  as  enveloping  every  other 
part  of  it,  except  the  extremities  of  the  roots  and  the 
stigma  of  the  flowers.  The  outer  bark  is  composed 
chiefly  of  cellular  tissues.  The  inner  bark  consists  of 
cellular  and  woody  tissues.  There  are  little  openings 
in  the  outer  bark  called  stonata  (mouths).  These  are 
very  minute,  requiring  the  aid  of  the  microscope  to 
see  them.  They  are  most  numerous  on  the  surface 
of  leaves  on  parts  of  the  plant  of  recent  growth. 
These  mouths  perform  important  offices,  in  taking  up 
moisture  and  gases  from  the  air. 

Glands  are  minute  masses  of  cellular  tissues,  of 
various  forms,  and  situated  in  various  parts  of  the 
plant.  Their  office  is  to  elaborate  and  discharge  the 


OP     AGRICULTURE.  19 

peculiar  secretions  of  the  plant.     The  germs,  oil,  etc., 
are  secreted  by  glands. 

ROOTS. 

The  roots  serve  the  double  purpose  of  sustaining  the 
plant  in  its  proper  position  and  of  absorbing  from  the 
soil  its  appropriate  food.  Their  office  being  some- 
what similar  to  that  of  the  mouths  of  animals,  they 
take  in  both  food  and  water. 

Eoots  have  a  great  variety  of  form :  first,  the  ramose, 
or  branching,  as  those  of  trees  or  shrubs ;  second,  the 
spindle,  as  the  radish  or  parsnip  ;  third,  tuberous,  closely 
resembling  the  potato,  formerly  regarded  a  tuberous 
root;  but  the  proper  tuberous  root  has  no  eyes  or 
buds,  while  the  potato  has,  and.  therefore,  is  properly 
classed  with  the  underground  stems ;  fourth,  fibrous. 
Wheat,  corn,  and  most  of  the  grasses  have  fibrous 
roots;  Indian  corn  has,  in  addition,,  a  still  different 
kind  of  root,  called  brace  roots.  They  serve  to  sup- 
port the  plant,  and  at  the  same  time  collect  nourish- 
ment from  the  soil. 

Parts  of  the  Hoot. — Tap  root  is  the  main  body  of 
the  root,  generally  descending  vertically  into  the  soil. 
The  fibrils  are  branches  off  from  the  tap  root,  often 
passing  into  many  subdivisions.  The  soft,  spongy, 
pulpy  points  of  the  branch  roots  are  the  mouths, 
through  which  the  plant  absorbs  its  food  from  the 
soil. 

THE    S  T  E  M  . 

*  The  ascending  of  the  stem,  and  the  descending  of 
the  tap  root,  seem  to  be  owing  chiefly  to  the  mys- 
terious influence  of  light.  This  can  be  shown  by  cxperi- 


20  WALL'S    MANUAL 

ment,  in  this  manner :  plant  seeds  in  a  box  of  soil, 
with  straw  or  moss  spread  over  it,  and  narrow  strips 
of  wood  placed  over  all,  so  that  the  contents  of  the 
box  will  not  fall  out  when  inverted ;  turn  the  open 
side  downward  over  a  mirror  or  a  bright  surface  of 
tin,  so  that  the  light  will  reach  the  soil  only  from  below, 
and  the  seeds  will  germinate,  the  stem  will  descend 
toward  the  light,  whilst  the  roots  will  ascend  into  the 
dark  soil  above  it. 

Functions  of  the  Stem. — These  are :  first,  to  convey 
the  sap  from  the  roots  to  the  leaves,  where  it  is  prepared 
for  the  nutrition  of  the  plant,  and  thence  to  carry  it 
to  the  various  parts  to  be  nourished  by  it ;  second,  to 
sustain  the  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruits,  so  as  to  expose 
them  properly  to  the  action  of  air  and  light. 

THE    LEAF. 

The  leaf  combines,  in  an  eminent  degree,  the  useful 
and  the  beautiful.  The  almost  countless  shapes, 
from  the  straight  and  slender  blade  of  grass  to  the 
deeply  lobed  oak  leaf,  and  the  broad  palm,  present  to 
the  eye  a  wonderful  variety  of  nature's  handiwork. 
The  green  color,  the  most  pleasant  to  the  eye,  seems 
to  have  been  provided  by  a  wise  Providence  to  soften 
the  bright  glare  of  a  summer's  sun,  and  thus  pro- 
mote the  comfort  of  His  creatures.  To  the  plant  itself 
the  leaf  boars  the  most  important  relation.  It  is  the 
breathing  organ  of  the  plant — its  lungs,  as  also  the 
digestive  organ — its  stomach. 

Functions  of  the  Leaf. — When  the  pap  of  the  plant 
ascends  from  the  root  to  the  leaf,  it  carries  with  it  in 
solution  a  portion  of  the  material  necessary  for  the 
nourishment  of  the  growing  plant,  but  this  food  is 


OF   AGRICULTURE,  21 

stili  in  a  crude  form,  and  too  diluted  to  be  adapted  to 
the  purposes  to  which  it  is  designed ;  it  must,  there- 
fore, undergo  certain  changes,  These  changes  take 
place  in  the  leaves*  The  sap  is  condensed,  that  is, 
the  surplus  moisture  is  thrown  off,  This  takes  place 
through  the  pores  of  the  leaf,  and  is  similar  to  the 
perspiration  of  animals*  This  is  called  inhalation* 
The  pores  or  mouth  of  the  leaf  are  open  in  the  light 
and  closed  in  the  dark, 

Plants  derive  a  large  proportion  of  their  nourish- 
ment from  the  air,  through  their  leaves,  in  the  form 
of  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  they  at  the  same  time 
throw  off  oxygen,  This  inhalation  of  carbonic  gas 
and  exhalation  of  oxygen  is  called  respiration.  It  is 
different  from  the  breathing  of  animals,  as  the  ani- 
mal inhales  oxygen  and  exhales  carbonic  gas.  The 
respiration  of  plants  goes  on  chiefly  by  day,  the 
mouths  or  pores  being  opened  by  the  influence  of 
light.  When  the  carbonic  acid  gas  enters  the  leaf  it 
is  dissolved  by  the  sap,  and  carried  through  the  veins 
of  the  leaf,  when  it  is  decomposed,  its  carbon  being 
retained  by  the  plant,  and  its  oxygen  exhaled  into 
the  air. 

The  food  taken  up  by  the  roots  of  plants  and  car* 
ried  by  the  sap  to  the  leaves,  these  meet  the  gaseous 
food  of  the  air,  forming  by  their  solution  "  crude  sap.'* 
This  is  changed  by  its  circulation  through  the  leaf, 
if  an  abundant  supply  of  light  be  present,  The 
changes  which  plant  food  thus  undergoes  is  called 
digestion,  because  of  its  resemblance  to  animal  diges- 
tion. When  the  sap  has  thus  been  prepared  for 
nourishing  the  plant  it  is  called  the  "true  sap^  It 
is  then  conveyed  by  the  circulating  organs  to  the 


22  WALL'S    M  A  N  u  A  L 

Various  parts  of  the  plant,  and  in  some  mysterious 
way  assumes  the  different  forms  of  organic  struc- 
ture, producing  stems  and  leaves,  flowers  and  fruit. 

FLOWERS  AND  FRUIT, 

Growth,  decay  and  death  mark  the  history  of 
every  individual  upon  the  globe,  whether  plant  or 
animal.  If,  then,  animals  and  plants  possessed  not 
the  power  of  reproduction,  our  world  would  become  a 
bleak  and  barren  waste.  The  reproductive  organs  of 
plants  are  found  in  the  flower,  which  is  the  expan- 
sion of  the  flower-bud.  These  by  their  combined 
influence  bring  the  seed  to  maturity,  and  thus  pro- 
duce the  germ  of  the  new  plant. 

The  essential  organs  for  the  production  of  seed  in 
any  plant  are  called  the  "stamen"  and  "pistil"  They 
are  not  always  found  in  the  same  flower,  They  often 
grow  on  different  flowers  on  the  same  stalk.  In 
such  cases  the  flowers  containing  the  stamens  are 
called  "stamenitc"  and  those  containing  the  pistil  are 
called  "  pistilate"  For  example,  Indian  corn  has  its 
stamens  in  the  tassel,  and  its  pistils  in  the  ear- shoot. 
The  tassel  then  is  stamenite  flower,  while  the  shoot 
with  its  silk  is  the  pistulato  flower.  The  stamenite 
is  barren,  the  pistilate  produces  seed. 

The  end  to  be  accomplished  by  the  stamens  and 
pistils  is  to  fertilize  the  seed.  Pollen  is  produced  in 
the  anthus  of  the  stamens,  which  in  the  proper  sea- 
son fall  upon  the  stigma  of  the  pistils,  Without  the 
pollen  no  seed  would  be  produced.  If  we  cut  the 
tassel  off  of  an  isolated  stalk  of  corn  before  the  silk 
has  appeared,  no  seed  can  be  produced.  But  if  other 


OF    AGRICULTURE. 

lasaels  are  near  at  hand  to  provide  pollen,  the  stalk 
may  produce  an  ear  without  a  tassel  of  its  own. 

The  fruit  consists  of  two  parts,  the  pulpy  matter 
which  surrounds  the  seed,  and  the  seed  which  con- 
tains the  germ  of  the  new  plant.  In  the  apple, 
peach,  etc,,  the  pulpy  matter  or  "pericarp"  is  the 
most  valuable  portion  of  the  fruit.  In  the  cereal,  or 
grain  crops,  the  seed  is  the  chief  value — the  pericarp 
or  skin,  being  the  chaif  or  husk.  Albumen,  or  the 
white,  starchy  mass,  constitutes  the  larger  part  of 
cereal  grains,  and  serves  not  only  as  food  for  the  germ 
of  the  plant,  but  also  constitutes  a  large  proportion 
of  the  food  for  man  and  beast. 

To  any  one  wishing  to  study  the  manner  in  which 
plants  grow,  and  their  different  parts  and  structure, 
more  fully,  we  would  recommend  some  good  work 
on  botany.*  Our  space  only  permits  us  to  make  use 
of  this  brief  exposition  as  the  part  most  interesting  to 
the  farmer. 


CHAPTEE    IY. 

MECHANICAL  TREATMENT  OF   THE   SOIL. 

As  sand,  day,  oxide  of  iron,  carbonate  of  lime,  and 
vegetable  matter  make  up  the  body  of  all  soils,  wo 
may  reduce  all  soils  into  six  general  classes.  Other 
ingredients,  such  as  potash,  soda,  phosphates  and  sul- 
phtites  are  no  less  essential  to  a  good  soil,  but  they 

*Prof.  Gray's  work  on  "How  Plants  Grow,"  or  Prof.  Johnston's  "How 
Crops  Grow,"  are  both  excellent  works  on  the  subject. 


24  WALL'S   M  A  N  u  A  L 

generally  form  only  a  small  portion  of  the   whole 
mass.     The  classes  we  propose  are — 

1.  Sandy  soil;   such  as  have  at  least  seventy- five 
per  cent,    of  sand.     The   quantity  of  sand  may  be 
determined  with  considerable  accuracy  by  very  simple 
means,     Dry  and  weigh  a  pound  of  soil,  and  put  it 
into  a  vessel  which  will  hold  a  gallon  or  two  of  water-. 
Pour  clean  water  over  it^  and  stir  it  up  thoroughly, 
then  pour  the  water  gradually  off.      The  sand  will 
sink  on  account  of  its  weight.      33y  repeating  the 
Washing  with  portions  of  clear  water,  Until  the  water 
passes  off  clear,  the  sand  alone  will  be  left,  and  may 
be  dried  and  weighed,  and  the  quantity  of  sand  in  a 
pound  of  soil  determined. 

2.  A  sandy  loam  is  a  soil  which  contains  fifty  to 
•seventy- five  per  cent,  of sand,  which  may  be  separated 
and  determined  as  above* 

3.  A  clay  loam  has  twenty- five  to  fifty  per  cent*  of 
sand,  and  the  remainder  chiefly  clay, 

4.  A  clay  soil  has  less  than  twenty- five  per  cent,  of 
sand,  the  remainder  chiefly  clay.     The  dark  red  clay 
soils  have  a  large  per  cent,  of  oxide  of  iron, 

5.  Any  soil  containing  ten   per   cent,    of  lime   or 
more,  may  be  considered  a  limy  or  calcareous  soil, 
whether  remainder  be  clay  or  sand,   or  both.     To 
determine  the  amount  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  soil, 
heat  two  ounces  of  well  dried  soil,  on  a  piece  of  sheet 
iron,  or  in  an  iron  ladle,  till  the  vegetable  matter  is 
burnt  out*     Then  pour  over  it  a  pint  of  water,  and 
add  a  fluid  ounce  of  muriatic  acid.     The  acid  will  dis- 
solve the  lime,  while  it  will  dissolve  very  little  else 
from  the  mass.      Wash  the  earth  with  clear  water 
several  times,  take  the  remainder,  dry  and  weigh  it, 


OF    AGRICULTURE.  2B 

and  the  loss  will  be  carbonate  of  lime.  This  is  but  a 
rude  experiment,  but  near  enough  for  practical  pur- 
poses. 

6,  A  peaty  soil  is  one  which  contains  twenty  per 
cent,  of  dark  decayed  vegetable  matter.  Such  soils 
-are  common  in  low,  swampy  places.  The  quantity  of 
peat  may  be  determined  by  burning  out  the  vegetable 
matter,  and  ascertaining  the  loss  of  weight. 

Compactness  is  a  quality  of  importance  in  a  soil.  It 
must  be  sufficiently  firm  to  hold  the  roots  of  growing 
crops  firmly  in  place,  This  is  especially  important 
in  wheat  or  grass  crops,  which  are  exposed  to  the 
frosts  of  winter  j  yet  it  must  not  be  so  compact  that 
the  roots  cannot  readily  penetrate  it, 

The  property  of  absorbing  and  retaining  moisture 
is  important  Clay  loams  and  peaty  soils  absorb  the 
largest  quantity  of  moisture,  and  retain  it  best,  es- 
pecially those  peaty  soils  which  have  a  large  excess 
of  organic  matter  in  them.  Pure  clay  soils  are  gen- 
erally too  compact,  while  sandy  soils  are  too  loose 
cither  to  absorb  or  retain  moisture.  On  level  clay 
soil  the  water  will  stand  and  become  stagnant.  This 
as  the  case,  also,  with  sandy  or  peaty  soils,  with  a 
<ilay  subsoil,  Under  these  circumstances  draining  is 
necessary, 

The  air  should  be  allow  ed  to  circulate  freely  through 
the  soil-.  It  carries  the  elements  of  plant  food  con- 
tained in  it  to  the  roots.  Carbonic  acid  gas  and  am- 
monia are  both  furnished  in  this  way  to  a  considera- 
ble extent.  It  promotes  the  decay  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter present,  and  thus  again  provides  food  for  plants. 
The  proper  chemical  changes  in  the  mineral  elements 
of  the  soil  are  promoted  by  the  carbonic  gas  and  the 


26  W  A  L  L  '  S     M  A  N  U  A  L 

oxygen  of  the  air.      How  necessary  then  that  the' 
soil  should  be  well  plowed  and  well  pulverized. 

Three  points  must  be  kept  distinctly  in  view  in  re- 
ducing soils  to  their  proper  mechanical  condition,  viz ; 
1st.   They  must  be  well  pulverized,  so  as  to  allow  the 
roots  of  plants  to  spread  and  grow  freely  in  every  direc- 
tion.    2d.   They  must  permit  a  free  circulation  of  air.- 
3d.  The  water  which  falls  upon  the   surface   must  be 
readily  absorbed,  and  have  at  the  same  time  such  free 
circulation  that  any  surplus  moisture  will  pass  off  with- 
out becoming  stagnant.,  and  loithout  washing   away  the 
surface  soil.      To   accomplish   these   objects   several 
methods  may  be  pursued,  one  or  all  of  wrhich  may  be 
employed,  as  the  condition  of  the  land,  or  other  cir- 
cumstances, may  require.     We  will  only  describe  the 
methods  best  adapted  to  the  farming  operations  in 
our  own  "country.      The  most  common  and  most  eco- 
nomical means  of  giving  a  soil  its  proper  mechanical 
condition,  is  plowing.    The  history  of  the  world  shows 
that  nations  have  prospered  just  in  proportion  to  the1 
skillful  use  they  have  made  of  the  plow .   If  two  men, 
with  equal  force  and  capital,  are  placed  on  contiguous' 
farms  of  equal  size  and  fertility,  they  will  prosper 
very  much  as  they  plow.     The  one  who  scratches  the 
surface  to  the  depth  of  two  or  three  inches,  will  soon: 
find  both  his  farm  and  himself  growing  poor,   while 
the  one  who  breaks  his  land  up  to  the  depth  of  ten 
or  twelve  inches,  win  soon  find  it  necessary  to  "pull 
down  his  barns  and'  build  greater.'7 

Deep  plowing  is  absolutely  necessary  on  almost  ev- 
ery farm,  in  order  to  obtain  the  highest  profit  from 
the  soil.  The  reasons  for  this  can  be  rendered  plain 
enough  for  any  mind  to  understand  in  a  few  sen- 


OP    AGRICULTURE.  27 

tences.  'The  space  in  depth  to  which  the  roots  of 
crops  penetrate,  and  from  which  they  derive  their 
food  is  usually  limited  by  the  depth  to  which  the  plow 
has  run.  Beneath  that  point,  especially  in  clay  soils, 
the  roots  make,  none  or  but  little  progress,  The  un- 
broken subsoil  which  is  compound  of  clay,  is  not  easily 
penetrated  by  rains.  Hence,  after  the  plowed  masa 
becomes  saturated,  the  surplus  water  escapes  over 
the  surface,  carrying  off  the  most  valuable  portions 
of  the  soil,  and  leaving  unsightly  gullies  behind. 
Deep  plowing  tends  to  prevent  washing, 

A  deeply  broken  soil  is  a  storehouse  for  moisture,  keep- 
ing moisture  in  reserve  for  seasons  of  drought.  When 
the  sun,  the  air  and  the  growing  crops  have  taken  up 
the  surface  moisture,  some  of  the  roots  are  still  deep 
down  in  the  earth,  where  the  supply  is  abundant.  In 
a  deep  broken  soil  a  great  deal  of  moisture  rises  to 
the  surface  by  capillary  attraction,  it  brings  with  it 
elements  of  fertility  in  solution,  and  as  the  evapora- 
tion at  the  surface  goes  011  these  are  left  to  aid  in  en- 
riching the  surface  soil.  A  drought  may  thus  improve 
land  which  has  been  properly  plowed. 

The  subsoil  plow  is  designed  to  follow  the  ordinary 
surface  plow  in  the  furrow  left  by  the  litter,  By 
this  means  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  is  broken  and 
pulverized,  without  being  turned  up.  The  surface  plow 
then  throws  its  next  furrow  upon  this  loosened  por- 
tion of  the  subsoil,  and  so  the  process  is  continued 
until  the  whole  field  is  broken  to  the  depth  of  from 
twelve  to  fourteen  inches. 

There  are  various  kinds  of  subsoil  plows  used,  all 
of  which  do  good  work.  A  common  snakehead  coul* 
ter  (so  called  at  the  South)  extending  fifteen  inches 


28  w ALL'S    MANUAL 

below  the  beam,  makes  a  very  effective  subsoil  plow, 
The  wings  of  the  head  should  be  spread  about  four 
inches  and  raised  three  inches*  This  implement  will 
do  very  effective  work. 

The  benefits  of  subsoiling  are  similar  to  those  of 
deep  plowing,  already  given,  It  also  opens  up  a  new 
source  of  fertility,  for  the  subsoil  always  contains 
many  substances  needed  as  food  for  growing  crops, 
It  gives  a  deeper  space  for  the  circulation  and  reten- 
tion of  air  and  moisture,  It  is  akin  to  draining,  if 
the  surface  is  level  and  of  such  character  as  to  retain 
too  much  water  which  falls 'on  it,  the  broken  subsoil 
lets  it  pass  off  more  freely  from  the  surface- soil, 
But  on  level  land,  in  cases  where  there  is  a  stratum 
of  stiff  clay  beneath  the  broken  soil,  there  will  be  no 
outlet  for  the  surplus  water,  which  will  remain,  as  in 
a  shallow  basin,  Draining  must  precede  subsoil  plow- 
ing, else  the  plowing  will  be  of  no  avail.  If  land  is 
level,  then  subsoiling  will  bo  of  little  service,  unless  it 
be  naturally  or  artificially  drained* 

One  peculiar  advantage  subsoiling  has  over  ordi- 
nary deep  plowing,  is  that  it  gives  a  deeply  pul- 
verized mass,  without  exposing  upon  the  surface  that 
portion  which  is  often  unfit  for  such  a  purpose.  If. 
for  example,  the  sub- soil  is  a  tenacious  clay,  which 
would  quickly  form  a  hard  crust  on  the  surface,  it 
had  best  not  be  turned  up ;  or  if  it  is  of  lighter  color 
than  the  surface  soil  it  would  not  absorb  heat  so 
freely,  and  would  in  that  respect  be  injurious. 

In  very  many  situations  sub -soiling  need  not  bo 
resorted  to,  In  very  deep  loamy  and  sandy  soils  it 
is  sometimes  better  to  run  two  ordinary  plows,  the 
one  after  the  other  in  the  same  furrow — the  second 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  29 

being  set  deeper  than  the  first.  In  this  way  the  sur- 
face and  sub -soil  are  inverted,  to 'some  extent,  or  at 
least  completely  mingled ;  and  where  the  surface  has 
been  exhausted  by  long  tillage,  its  place  is  thus  sup- 
plied by  fresh  soil.  Tbis  method  is  called  trench 
plowing. 

The  harrow  and  cultivator  are  important  aids  to  the 
plow  in  reducing  the  soil  to  a  more  completely  pul- 
verized condition;  in  mixing  fertilizers  more  entirely 
with  it;  in  giving  a  smooth  surface  to  plant  or  sow 
orops,  and  in  covering  the  seeds  of  plants.  The 
roller  is  an  important  im.plem.3nt  0:1  many  soils 
When  light  sandy  soils  are  cultivated  in  wheat  or 
other  grains,  the  roller  is  frequently  necessary  to 
render  the  surface  sufficiently  compact  and  also  in 
crushing  clods. 

D  RAINING. 

In  a  work  of  this  kind  a  short  notice  only  can  be 
made  of  this  important  subject.  Any  one  wishing 
to  inform  himself  more  thoroughly  upon  the  subject 
will  find  valuable  information  in  the  work  by 
Waring,  "  Draining  for  Profit  and  for  Health,"  and 
"  Farm  Drainage,"  by  II.  F.  French,  from  both  of 
which  I  have  derived  important  information  herein 
embodied. 

The  chief  object  of  draining  in  agriculture  is  to 
carry  off  the  surplus  moisture  from  the  soil.  Thou- 
sands of  acres  of  swamp  lands  have  by  this  means 
been  reclaimed  from  otherwise  utterly  worthless  con- 
dition, and  rendered  extremely  fertile ;  while  mil- 
lions of  acres  lie  yet  unreclaimed  in  our  Southern 
State?,  producing  only  loathsome  reptiles  and  insects, 


30  WALL'S    MANUAL 

together  with  fatal  malaria,  which  often  renders  the 
surrounding  country  almost  uninhabited.  Marshy 
and  swampy  lands  arc  generally  not  fertile.  First — 
Because  the  stagnant  water  excludes  the  air,  and 
causes  the  vegetable  matter  to  be  converted  into 
soluble  vegetable  acids  in  such  quantities  as  to  be 
injurious  to  most  plants.  Such  soils  are  said  to  be 
"  sour,"  and  produce  nothing  but  coarse,  worthless 
vegetation.  Second — The  air  is  necessary  to  keep 
up  the  proper  chemical  activity  in  the  soil  in  order 
to  produce  the  necessary  changes  in  its  mineral 
ingredients.  Stagnant  water  prevents  this  by  exclud 
ing  the  air.  Third — Swampy  lands  are  cold.  Water 
is  very  slowly  heated,  compared  with  soil.  Hence 
lands  covered,  or  even  saturated  with  water,  are  not 
readily  penetrated  by  the  heat  of  the  sun.  Besides 
this,  the  constant  evaporation  which  goes  on  from 
the  surfrce  of  such  lands  carries  off  heat  rapidly. 

Draining,  by  admitting  the  circulation  of  the  air, 
promotes  the  proper  kind  of  chemical  changes,  in 
both  vegetable  and  mineral  substances,  and  thus 
"sweetens"  a  "sour  soil;"  and  by  admitting  heat 
and  checking  evaporation,  brings  the  soil  under  the 
warming  influences  of  the  sun. 

The  decay  of  vegetable  matter  is  hastened  by 
draining,  and  the  soil  rendered  more  porous.  As 
soon  as  drained  lands  become  sufficiently  dry  for  the 
plow,  they  should  be  treated  with  a  free  dressing  of 
quick  lime,  or  unleached  ashes,  to  neutralize  the  excess 
of  vegetable  acids,  and  then  broken  up  to  as  great  a 
depth  as  possible  to  aid  the  circulation  of  air. 

There  are  two  modes  of  draining  in  common  use. 
The  one  by  surface  or  open  drains;  the  other  by 


OP     AGRICULTURE.  31 

blind  or  covered  drams.     The  open  drains  consist  of 
one  or  more  channels  or  ditches  running  through  the 
lowest   part   of   the    field.      A   natural    channel   or 
branch  often  serves  the  purpose.     The  land  can  be 
either  bedded  so  as  to  run  into  these  main  ditches, 
or,  if  necessary,  cross  ditches  cut,  emptying  into  the 
main  drains..      These   cross   drains   should   have   as 
much    "  fall "   as  possible  on  level  land   near  their 
mouths.     The  covered  drains  are  in  every  respect  pre- 
ferable to  the  .open  drains.     They  are  constructed  by 
digging  ditches  from  three  to  four  feet  deep,  parallel 
to  one  another,  and  leading  into  a  larger  or  main 
channel,  like  the  open  drains.     But  instead  of  being 
left  open,  a  tube  or  pipe  is  formed  of  tiles,  broken 
stones,  timber  or  coarse  brush  is  laid  in  the  bottom 
to  carry  off  the  water,  and  the  ditch  then  filled  up. 
There  are  several  points  to  be  observed  in  the  con- 
struction of  covered  drains.     If  the  land  is  level  or 
nearly  so,   the  main  channel  should  run  along  the 
lowest  part  of  the   land  to  be  drained,  and  should 
have  as  much  "fall"  as  possible  toward  the  outlet 
from  the  field.     The  side  drains  should  run  at  right 
angles  (or  as  nearly  so)  to  this,  and  with  as  much 
"fall"   as  can   be  given  them.      If  the  land  to   be 
drained  is  a  hill  side,  the  main  drain  should  run  along 
the  base  of  the  hill,  but  have  sufficient  fall  to  carry 
off  the  water  freely.     The  smaller  drains  should  run 
directly  down  the  slope  into  the  main  drain. 

The  distance  apart  that  the  side  drains  should  be 
placed  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  subsoiL 
In  *  stiff  clay  it  would  be  best  to  place  them  from 
twenty -five  to  thirty  feet  apart.  But  in  a  gravel  ly, 
platy  soil,  they  may  be  often  separated  by  a  space  of 


32  W  A  I,  L  7  S     M  A  N  U  A  I* 

fifty  or  one  hundred  yards.  A  large  field,  with  a 
sandy  or  pebbly  substratem,  has  often  been  drained 
by  a  single  drain.. 

The  drains  should  be  made  as  deep  as  the  nature 
of  the  soil  and  the  "fall"  will  admit.  Say  from 
thirty  to  thirty -six  inches,  or  if  possible,  four  or  five 
feet  in  depth.  The  great  object  in  draining  is  to 
remove  the  surplus  water,  and  give  free  access  of  air- 
to  as  great  a  depth  of  soil  as  possible.  The  roots  of 
crops  are  known  to  run  to  a  great  depth  in  soils 
which  are  in  a  proper  condition  to  be  penetrated  by 
them.  Indian  corn  has  been  known  to  send  its  roots 
down  to  the  depth  of  six  feet.  Clover  has  sent  its 
tap  root  down  to  the  depth  of  forty-two  inches. 
These  facts  have  been  ascertained  by  actual  experi- 
ment. It  will  bo  found  that  the  tops  of  plants  vary 
nearly  in  proportion  to  their  roots ;  how  necessary, 
then,  to  furnish  a  deep,  rich  soil  for  the  roots.  When 
marshy  lands  arc  first  drained  they  will  not  at  once 
be  productive.  Time  must  be  allowed  for  the  proper 
chemical  changes  to  take  place,  but  these  changes 
may  be  greatly  hastened  by  artificial  means.  The 
application  of  quick  lime  or  unleached  ashes  Avill  help 
to  neutralize  the  vegetable  acids  always  present,  and 
thus  sweeten  the  soil. 

Draining  in  clay  soils  is  one  of  the  best  preventives 
©f  drought.  Stiff  soils  are  generally  very  wet  during 
the  winter  and  spring ;.  the  whole  mass  of  plowed 
earth  is  like  a  bed  of  mortar,  and  settles  down  very 
compactly.  If  this  land  has  been  drained  and  sub- 
soiled,  the  surplus  water  settles  down  at  once  and  is 
carried  off  by  the  drains,  while  during  a  drought 
enough  moisture  soaks  upward  to  supply  the  plants, 
and  keep  them  in  a  growing  condition. 


OF    AGRICULTURE.  33 

CHAPTER    Y. 

CHEMICAL   TREATMENT   OF   THE    SOIL, 

Having  considered  the  mechanical  treatment  of  the 
Boil,  let  us  now  take  up  the  chemical  treatment*  -A 
soil  may  receive  all  the  attention  possible  in  the  way 
of  plowing,  draining,  etc,,  and  still  not  be  productive, 
It  may  lack  the  proper  chemical  elements  necessary 
to  supply  the  wanti  of  the  growing  crop, 

On  the  following  page  we  give  a  comparative  table 
of  ashes  of  crops,  showing  the  exact  quantity  con- 
tained in  each  crop : 


W  A  L L  r  S     MANUAL 


paoy 


TIJOO 


tl^IPPI 


«CC^H^ 


SI 

C^l 


uses'     «oose 

" 


1--.  r-t       QO  tq  I-  CO  GS 10  i 

gj«    ^"S    ^^^ 


OF     A  G  R  I  CULTURE.  35 

From  the  foregoing  table  we  can  form  an  approx- 
mate  estimate  of  the  mineral  ingredients  needed  by 
different  plants. 

If  we  examine  the  foregoing  table,  we  see  that  the 
mineral  ingredients  taken  from  the  soil  by  different 
plants  are  nearly  all  identical  in  kind,  but  vary  con- 
siderably in  the  proportions  in  which  they  enter  into 
the  constitution  of  the  ashes  of  different  plants,  or  of 
different  parts  of  the  same  plant.  That  a  soil  may  be 
fertile  for  a  particular  crop,  several  chemical  proper- 
ties are  essential.  It  must  contain  an  excess  of  mineral 
elements  required  by  the  crop,  to  allow  the  roots  to 
find  an  abundant  supply  in  the  limited  spaces  which 
can  be  reached  by  the  rootlets.  This  would,  of  course, 
require  in  the  whole  mass  of  the  soil  much  more  of 
each  element  than  could  be  removed  by  a  single  crop. 
The  plant  food  must  be  in  a  proper  chemical  condition 
to  be  taken  up  by  the  plant.  For  example  :  silica  in 
the  form  of  sand  cannot  act  as  a  fertilizer,  because  of 
its  insolubility  ;  but  in  such  combinations  as  render  it 
soluble,  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  elements  of 
plant  life.  Wheat  straw  contains  sixty- six  per  cent. 
of  silica  or  dissolved  sand ;  a  corn- stalk,  twenty- seven 
percent.  All  the  outer  coating  of  wheat  straw,  corn- 
stalks, oat  straw,  etc.,  is  nothing  but  sand  made  soluble 
by  alkalies  in  the  soil. 

The  soil  must  be  free  from  an  injurious  excess  of  any 
of  the  mineral  elements  of  fertility.  Too  much  mag- 
nesia, or  even  too  much  carbonate  of  lime,  may  be 
injurious  ;  as  for  instance,  the  chalk  lands  in  England, 
wjiich  are  among  the  least  productive  in  that  country, 
and  also  the  salty  spots  in  various  portions  of  the 
Southern  States.  The  vegetable  acids  are  useful,  but 


36  WALL'S    MANUAL 

in  large  excess  they  become  injurious,  as,  for  example, 
in  a  marshy,  swampy  piece  of  ground. 

•  Vegetable  matter  in  a  state  of  decomposition  is  abso- 
lutely essential  to  a  high  degree  of  fertility.  In  a  soil 
having  the  proper  mineral  elements  alone,  a  plant  may 
come  to  maturity  and  bear  seed,  obtaining  the  neces- 
sary organic  food  from  the  air,  through  its  leaves  and 
roots;  but  &  full  crop  cannot  be  expected  in  such  a 
case.  A  soil  to  be  fertile,  must  contain  both  vegetable 
matter  and  ammonia. 

Let  us  place  side  by  side  the  analysis  of  three  soils 
differing  in  quality.  The  first  is  fertile  for  all  ordinary 
crops  without  manure.  The  reason  for  this  is  manfest 
in  the  presence  of  an  abandance  of  those  substances 
found  in  the  ashes  of  plants.  The  second  is  a  soil 
which  produces  well,  with  the  application  of  plaster 
er  gypsum,  furnishing  lime  and  sulphuric  acid,  and 
ashes  furnishing  potash  and  lime.  The  third  is  a  poor 
soil,  requiring  much  manuring. 

Fertile  with 

Fertile.  Ashes  and  Plaster.          Infertile. 

Vegetable  Matter 10.0()  5.RO  6.00 

Potash 0.40  0.01  (deft)  Deficient 

Soda 0.20  0.20  Deficient 

Lime 5.90  0.80  0.50 

Magnesia 0.80  0.70  0.80 

Oxide  of  Iron 2.10  4.00  8.00 

Alumina  or  Clay 10.70  .        25.00  25.30 

Phosphate  of  Lime 0.40  0.20  Deficient 

Sulphuric  Acid 0.30  Deficient  Deficient 

Carbonic  Acid 0.00  0.00  Deficient 

Silica  or  Sand C3.90  GO.OO  58.00 

Chlorine 0.02  0.07  Deficient 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  analysis  of  a  fertile 
soil,  that  even  such  a  soil  may  have  but  a  small  per 
centage  of  several  ingredients  which  are  absolutely 
necessary  in  the  production  of  every  crop.  ~No  crop, 
for  example,  can  be  produced  without  potash  and 
phosphate  of  lime  j  and  yet  those  form  a  very  small 


OP     AGRICULTURE.  37 

proportion  of  any  ordinary  soil.  A  single  crop 
takes  away  but  little  of  any  one  ingredient,  but  still 
repeated  cultivation  of  similar  crops  for  many  years 
must  greatly  diminish  the  supply  of  those  mineral 
elements  found  in  the  ashes  of  plants.  Every  bushel 
of  wheat,  every  bushel  of  corn,  every  bushel  of 
rye,  &c.,  takes  away  phosphate  of  lime  from  the  soil, 
as  also  every  bushel  of  cotton  seed,  if  the  seed  is  not 
returned  to  the  land  as  a  manure  for  corn  or  cotton. 
Then  again,  every  fatted  ox  carries  with  him  a  good 
many  pounds  of  the  phosphate  of  lime,  to  market, 
which  came  from  the  soil  upon  which  his  food  was 
produced.  Hence,  this  constant  depletion  must  be 
met  by  the  application  of  bone  dust,  or  phosphate 
of  lime. 

The  general  experience  of  the  world  is  that  all 
lands  become  exhausted  by  long  continued  tillage  without 
manure.  The  mineral  elements  become  exhausted  by 
by  improper  cultivation.  The  vegetable  matter  or 
mould  in  the  soil  is  decomposed,  and  gradually  disap- 
pears. Unless  fresh  portions  are  supplied  a  deficiency 
must  result.  Ammonia  is  still  more  rapidly  exhausted. 
The  material  supply  of  ammonia  in  the  soil  is  not 
abundant,  while  its  volatility  and  chemical  activity 
causes  it  to  be  constantly  escaping,  or  undergoing 
changes  of  form  and  combination.  Henue  the 
necessity  of  artificial  fertilizers. 

From  what  has  been  said  of  the  physical  and 
chemical  condition  of  soils,  we  may  safely  infer 
they  need  fertilizers.  A  fertilizer  is  any  substance 
which,  when  applied  to  a  soil,  will  preserve  or  increase 
its  productiveness. 

Whenever,  then,  we  would  enrich  a  barren  waste, 


38  w  ALL'S    M  A  N  u  A  L 

neutralize  some  unwholesome  ingredient  of  the 
soil,  restore  exhausted  lands,  or  supply  neglected 
fertilizers,  we  must  resort  to  the  proper  artificial 
means.  To  do  this  intelligently,  requires  some 
knowledge  of  the  various  fertilizers,  their  compo- 
sition, mode  of  application,  action,  and  influence. 
This  knowledge  we  will  endeavor  to  embody  in 
the  second  part  of  this  work,  and  hope  we  will 
succeed  in  making  it  intelligible  to  every  farmer. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

A    STATEMENT    OP   LEADING   FACTS. 

We  have  found,  from  a  chemical  analysis  of  our 
usual  crops,  the  following  fixed  bases  and  acids,  viz. : 

Bases — Potash,  soda,  lime,  magnesia,  oxides  of  iron, 
and  manganese 

Acids — Phosphoric,  sulphuric,  silicic,  carbonic,  and 
hydrochloric  (or  chlorine). 

These  are  always  found  in  the  ashes  of  plants. 
They,  therefore,  must  be  in  the  soil  in  which  the  plant 
grows,  or  in  the  atmosphere  which  surrounds  the 
plant.  They  are  in  the  soil,  in  various  combinations 
with  each  other,  or  with  matter  which  plants  do  not 
take  up.  For  example,  some  acids  may  exist  in  the 
soil  in  combination  with  alumina,  which  is  never 
found  in  the  ashes  of  plants.  We  rarely  find  potash 
and  soda  combined  with  sulphuric  acid  ;  we  generally 
find  them  in  combination  with  silicic  acid,  from 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  39 

which  they  arc  slowly  dissolved  by  the  action  of  car- 
bonic acid. 

Phosphoric  acid  is  generally  found  in  combination 
with  lime  in  the  soil,  while  in  the  ashes  of  plants 
most  of  the  phosphoric  acid  is  in  combination  with 
potash  and  soda.  Sulphuric  acid  is  found  mostly 
combined  with  lime  in  the  soil.  Magnesia  is  absorbed 
by  plants  from  its  solution  in  carbonic  or  vegetable 
acids. 

Silicic  acid  is  probably  introduced  into  plants  as  a 
silicate  of  potash  or  soda,  or  dissolved  in  carbonic  acid 
water.  On  the  outer  surface  of  all  grasses  or  cereals,  as 
well  as  reeds  and  rattan,  wre  find  a  layer  of  "silex"  or 
flint,  derived,  without  doubt,  from  the  solution  of  sand 
or  silex  absorbed  from  the  soil  by  these  plants.  These 
plants  owe  their  support  to  this  flinty  substance,  as 
they  are  wanting  in  woody  fibre  and  solid  heart 
interior ;  and  this  support  is  necessary  to  enable  them 
to  bear  their  burden  of  grain  and  foliage,  to  strengthen 
their  sap  vessels  and  protect  them  from  the  ravages 
of  mildew  and  insects. 

On  examining  the  usual  constituents  of  the  soil,  wre 
find  all  the  mineral  ingredients  of  ashes  sufficiently 
abundant,  excepting  the  alkalies  and  phosphoric  acid. 
It  is  safe,  therefore,  to  mix  a  larger  proportion  of 
these  ingredients  in  the  manure  we  wish  to  introduce 
into  the  soil.  They  are  to  be  found  in  ashes,  guano, 
and  superphosphate  of  lime,  which  are  ail  known  to 
farmers  as  the  most  reliable  of  the  saline  manures. 

A  certain  amount  of  vegetable  mold,  or  humus,  is 
^necessary  to  the  formation  of  a  good  and  enduring 
soil;  and,  though  saline  manures  will  often,  by  them- 
selves, produce  a  good  crop  on  a  poor  and  apparently 


40  WALL'S    MANUAL 

exhausted  soil,  they  do  sometimes  fail,  owing  to  the 
want  of  mold  to  retain  moisture  requisite  to  healthy 
vegetation,  as  also  to  the  production  by  slow  decay  of 
carbonic  acid  gas  required  by  the  roots  of  the  plant. 
It  is  proper,  on  poor  soils,  to  mix  the  salts  with  vegetable 
composts. 

When  vegetable  matters  are  allowed  to  undergo 
changes  in  a  moist  soil,  there  are  various  products 
formed  during  their  fermentation,  putrefaction,  or 
slow  combustion.  The  first  changes  which  take  place 
are,  properly,  those  of  fermentation,  during  which 
soluble  vegetable  acids  are  formed,  amongst  them 
acetic  acid  or  vinegar,  when  the  plants  are  rich  in  sugar. 
During  this  stage  of  fermentation  vegetable  matters 
act  injuriously  to  plants,  the  soluble  vegetable  acids 
being  to  most  of  them  poisonous.  If  lime,  potash  or 
soda  be  present  in  the  soil,  the  acids  unite  with  them, 
and  are  neutralized.  Hence  the  importance  of  using 
these  alkalies. 

The  next  change  is  one  of  a  different  nature,  in 
which  the  fibre  of  the  wood  becomes  brown  and 
rotten.  Ulmic  acid  is  now  formed,  and  next  humic. 
It  will  thus  be  seen  that  all  the  processes  of  decay  of 
vegetable  matter  result  in  the  formation  of  vegetable 
acids  and  humus  or  mold,  and  by  the  action  of  the 
air  upon  them,  produces  carbonic  acid,  which,  in  its 
turn,  acts  upon  the  silicates  and  salts  in  the  soil,  or  is 
evolved  as  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  is  absorbed  by 
the  leaves  of  plants. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  acid  matters  of  all  kinds 
tend  to  decompose  the  minerals  in  the  soil.  Ulmic, 
humic,  and  crenic  acids  readily  act  on  rocks.  This 
has  been  proven  by  placing  a  piece  of  granite,  lime- 


OP     AGRICULTURE.  41 

stone,  or  other  rock,  in  a  peat  or  muck  bog,  where 
these  vegetable  acids  abound.  The  rocks,  before 
dark  and  solid,  come  out  of  the  peat  perfectly  white  ; 
the  granite  has  lost  its  felspar,  and  its  mica  is  decom- 
posed, and  potash  and  soda  extracted,  while  only  the 
pulverized  mica  remains.  A  rock  containing  lime  is 
soon  deprived  of  the  same,  and  cavities  are  left  where 
it  formerly  existed.  In  a  similar  manner  all  vegetable 
mold  acts  upon  the  minerals  in  the  soil,  disengagign 
from  them  their  potash,  soda,  lime  and  magnesia. 

A  still  further  change  takes  place  more  readily  in 
cultivated  soils,  the  slow  decay  of  vegetable  mold 

•J  o 

producing  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  is  also  an  active 
decomposer  of  the  silicates,  freeing  potash,  soda  and 
lime,  and  is  a  great  solvent  of  the  carbonate  of  lime. 
This  decomposing  agent  is  constantly  at  work  during 
the  plowing  of  the  soil;  but  it  is  not  the  only  agent 
operating  to  renovate  the  soil,  for  at  the  same  time 
the  clay  and  mold  arc  engaged  in  absorbing  the 
minute  quantities  of  ammonia  which  descends  with 
the  falling  rain  or  snow,  or  is  in  the  air.  Thus,  a 
complicated  but  beautiful  exchange  takes  place  among 
the  salts  in  the  soil. 

When  we  mix  acids  and  alkalies  together  in  the 
soil,  the  result  is  neutral  salts ;  and  since  vegetable 
acids  have  a  great  affinity  for  ammonia,  with  which 
they  readily  combine,  they  prevent  the  escape  of  this 
valuable  gaseous  manure,  and  preserve  it  in  its  most 
available  form  as  food  for  plants.  It  has  been  ascer- 
tained, by  experiment,  that  ammonia,  in  combination 
with  humic  and  other  vegetable  acids,  is  actually 
absorbed  and  digested  by  plants. 

Chemistry  has  verified  and  justified  the  experience 


42  W  A  L  L  '  S     M  A  N  U  A  L 

of  ages  as  to  the  importance  of  composting  animal 
and  vegetable  substances  together  in  the  manure  heap, 
so  as  to  retain  in  proper  combination  the  most  valuble 
fertilizers.  But  farmers  are  not  generally  informed  as 
to  the  reason  for  this  operation,  and  often  commit 
grave  errors  by  not  knowing  the  principles  involved. 
Liquid  manure  from  the  stalls,  or  urine,  is  too  often 
allowed  to  escape  and  waste  itself  in  drains,  because 
the  farmer  is  not  aware  of  the  fact  that  it  is  as  good 
as  a  saturated  solution  of  the  best  Peruvian  guano, 
containing  ammonia-producing  materials,  phosphate 
of  lime,  and  all  of  the  alkalies.  It  forms  an  excellent 
ferment  to  mix  with  the  vegetable  matter  of  the 
compost  heap. 

Caustic  lime  or  fixed  alkalies  should  never  be  intro- 
duced into  the  manure  heap  consisting  chiefly  of 
animal  droppings,  unless  an  abundance  of  vegetable 
mold  is  ready  to  spread  on  it  immediately,  to  absorb 
the  disengaged  ammonia,  by  covering  the  heap  with 
a  thick  layer  of  it.  The  cases  where  lime  is  required 
to  be  used  are  not  {infrequent,  as  for  instance,  where 
animal  offal  or  night-soil  is  composted,  the  odor  of 
the  manure  heap  would  be  insupportable;  but  by 
throwing  in  a  liberal  supply  of  freshly  slacked  lime, 
and  covering  the  whole  heap  with  a  thick  layer  of 
moist  vegetable  mold  or  rotten  wood,  all  the  ammonia 
will  be  saved,  and  the  compost  be  no  longer  offensive. 

Concentrated  fertilizers,  such  as  guano,  superphos- 
phate of  lime,  and  sulphate  of  ammonia,  are  now 
extensively  used  by  farmers.  These  concentrated 
manures  generally  prove  to  be  very  efficient,  but  in  a 
very  dry  season  their  effects  are  not  so  valuable,  unless 
they  have  been  composted  with  vegetable  matter.  All 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  43 

stimulating,  quick  acting  manures  require  vegetable 
mold  in  the  soil.  This  mold  has  a  very  great  absorb- 
ing power  for  moisture. 

In  many  cases  the  farmer  cannot  obtain  swamp 
muck  or  peat,  and  hence,  cannot  follow  the  method 
here  recommended.  He  can,  however,  raise  green 
crops,  say  of  peas,  clover  or  buckwheat,  and  turn  them 
under,  so  as  to  form  vegetable  mold  in  the  soil.  When- 
ever this  is  done,  he  may  confidently  rely  upon  a  large 
crop  from  the  use  of  his  concentrated  fertilizers,  since 
the  vegetable  mold  will  retain  sufficient  moisture  to 
meet  any  ordinary  drouth. 

Ashes,  when  they  can  be  obtained  in  sufficient  quan- 
tities, either  fresh  or  leached,  arc  a  very  valuable 
manure  on  sandy  loams  or  dry  soil  of  any  kind ;  but 
they  do  not  act  so  favorably  on  wet  or  cold  clay  soils. 
On  fine  silicious  sand  soils,  containing  two  or  three 
per  cent,  of  vegetable  mold,  ashes  alone  are  a  perfect 
amendment,  capable  of  supplying  food  for  plants  for 
a  number  of  years.  Guano  and  superphosphate  of  lime 
would  add  greatly  to  the  fertility  of  such  a  soil,  with 
an  ordinary  season,  but  would  be  liable  to  fail  in  one 
of  extended  drouth,  unless  supported  by  an  adequate 
supply  of  vegetable  mold.  If  so  supported,  they  not 
only  make  the  crop  grow  with  astonishing  rapidity, 
but  hasten  materially  its  maturity,  say,  often  as  much 
as  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  days,  in  point  of  time. 

It  is  a  well  ascertained  fact  that  all  substances  which 
will  generate  ammonia  are  known  to  be  valuable 
manures,  for  they  supply  nitrogen  and  other  elements 
wWch  the  plant  has  not  the  power  to  draw  from  the 
atmosphere.  Hence  the  advantage  of,  and  sometimes 
absolute  necessity  for,  an  artificial  supply  of  nitrogen- 


44  w  ALL'S    MANUAL 

ous  substances  to  nearly  all  cultivated  soils.  We  have 
to  furnish  to  the  soil  such  ingredients  as  are  needed 
by  plants,  and  which  in  many  places  are  found  quite 
sparingly  in  the  soil.  These  ingredients  are  phosphate 
of  lime,  potash,  soda,  and  ammonia  which,  with  mold 
and  the  other  mineral  manures  already  in  the  soil, 
will  produce  plentiful  crops.  Other  matters  intro- 
duced into  the  soil  are  classed  as  mechanical  agents, 
and  effect,  principally,  the  texture  and  physical 
properties  of  the  same.  They  frequently  are  as 
valuable  as  the  nutritive  manures  themselves,  in 
giving  the  soil  its  best  mechanical  qualities  as  to 
structure,  as  dryncss  or  moisture,  rctentiveness  of 
heat,  and  such  a  degree  of  porosity  as  to  enable  the 
air  to  penetrate  deep  down  into  the  soil.  Charcoal 
powder  acts  mechanically  in  absorbing  ammonia  and 
moisture  from  the  air,  and  also,  by  its  color,  in  absorb- 
ing the  heat  of  the  sun's  rays,  and  retaining  the  heat 
by  imperfect  conduction.  Cbarcoal  is  undoubtedly  a 
powerful  fertilizer,  and  one  of  great  duration,  as  is 
shown  by  the  continued  fertility  of  the  places  \\  here 
the  Indians  built  their  camp-fires.  On  the  banks  of 
James  Eiver,  in  Virginia,  more  than  two  hundred 
years  ago,  this  evidence  is  strikingly  shown.  iSTothing 
peculiar  to  these  spots  can  be  discovered,  beyond  the 
admixture  of  large  quantities  of  charcoal  and  oyster 
shells  with  the  soil.  Carbonate  of  lime,  shells,  marl 
or  limestone,  in  excess,  is  also  highly  useful  in  any 
soil;  as  it  stands  ready  to  take  up  any  acid  matter, 
whether  of  vegetable  or  mineral  origin,  and  on  com- 
bining with  them,  gives  off  carbonic  acid,  which  goes 
not  only  to  decompose  the  silicates  in  the  soil,  but 
also  rises  through  it  to  nourish  the  foliage  of  plants. 


O  F    A  G  11 1  C  U  L  T  U  &  E  »  45 

Lime  also  decomposes  the  sand  or  silica  directly, 
displacing  the  alkalies  and  rendering  the  sand  soluble* 
Clay  acts  mechanically  in  giving  consistency  to  the 
soil,  retaining  moisture  and  absorbing  ammonia  from 
the  aii\ 


CHAPTEE  Til. 

ABSORBENTS. 

Charcoal^  in  an  agricultural  sense,  means  all  forms 
of  carbon,  whether  as  peat,  muck,  charcoal,  dust  from 
the  spark- catchers  of  locomotives,  charcoal  hearths, 
river  and  swamp  deposits,  leaf  mold,  decomposed 
spent  tan- bark,  or  saw- dust,  etc>  In  short,  if  any 
Vegetable  matter  is  decomposed  with  the  partial 
exclusion  of  air,  a  portion  of  its  carbon  remains  in 
the  exact  condition  to  perform  the  best  agricultural 
offices  of  charcoal.  This  carbonaceous  matter,  when 
properly  applied  to  manures  in  compost,  has  the 
following  effects  :  it  absorbs  and  retains  the  fertilizing 
gases  which  evaporate  from  decomposing  matter ;  it 
acts  as  a  divisor,  thereby  reducing  the  intensity  of 
powerful  manures,  thus  rendering  them  less  likely  to 
injure  the  roots  of  plants,  and  also  increases  their  bulk, 
eo  as  to  prevent  fire-funging ;  also  in  part  prevents  the 
leaching  out  of  the  soluble  parts  of  the  ash,  and  keeps 
the*  compost  moist, 

With  these  advantages  before  us,  we  must  sec  the 
importance  of  an  understanding  of  the  modes  for 


46  W  A  L  L  '  S     M  A  N  U  A  L 

obtaining  charcoal.  Many  farmers  are  so  situated 
that  they  can  obtain  sufficient  quantities  of  charcoal 
dust ;  and  nearly  all  can  obtain  muck,  or  leaf  mold, 
To  this  we  will  now  turn  our  attention, 

MUCK    OR  VEGETABLE   MOLD. 

By  muck,  we  mean  the  vegetable  deposits  of  swamps 
and  rivers,  It  consists  of  decayed  organic  matter, 
mixed  more  or  less  with  earth.  Its  principal  con- 
stituent is  carbon^  in  different  degrees  of  development, 
remaining  after  the  rotting  of  vegetable  matter, 
The  dark,  fat,  arable  soil,  containing  much  partially 
decomposed  vegetable  mold,  is  always  considered  the 
best  land.  The  farmer  knows  that,  contrary  to  wThat 
happens  in  his  woodlands,  this  vegetable  matter 
decreases  in  his  fields,  and  so  much  the  more  rapidly 
as  the  crops  are  more  abundant ;  he  knows  that  fields 
rich  in  vegetable  mold  are,  as  a  general  rule,  more 
fertile  than  those  which  are  poor  in  the  same.  Accord- 
ingly as  this  vegetable  mold  diminishes  it  must  be 
renewed  in  some  way,  or  barrenness  of  soil  is  the 
inevitable  result.  This  mass  of  brown,  decaying 
matter  is  partly  soluble,  partly  insoluble,  partly  acid 
and  partly  neutral,  which,  with  the  uninterrupted 
presence  of  air,  water  and  heat,  may  be  still  further 
decomposed,  and  carbonic  acid  and  water  thereby 
evolved. 

Carbonic  acid  and  water  are  indispensable  to  the 
nourishment  of  plants ;  hence,  in  a  soil  rich  in  vege- 
table mold  the  plants  grow  more  vigorously,  because 
they  find  these  ingredients  ready  to  be  absorbed  by 
their  rootlets.  Vegetable  mold  exerts  a  beneficial 
influence  upon  vegetation  in  other  ways.  It  loosens 


O  &     A  G  K  I  C  U  L  T  U  R  Ef .  47 

the  soil  by  the  development  of  carbonic  acid;  it 
possesses  the  power  of  attracting  moisture  from  the 
air  and  of  retaining  it  for  a  long  time ;  and  by  means' 
of  the  acids  which  it  contains,  it  is  able  to  abstract 
ammonia  from,  the  air  and  also  from  manure  ;  hence 
its  value  in  the  compost  heap. 

The  way  in  which  "muck,"'  or  vegetable  mold,  is 
most  commonly  used  in  Virginia  and  the  Northern 
States  is,  to  collect  and  store  in  a  dry  state,  in  some 
convenient  place  near  to  the  droppings  of  the  stalls, 
and  theii,  from  day  to  day,  to  spread  upon  these" 
droppings  twice  their  bulk  in  muck.  This  mode  of 
preparation  requires  no  special  skill,  and  commends 
itself  to  the  practice  of  all.  Any  common  laborer  of 
the  farm  can  manipulate  it;  and  it  needs  no  adjuncts 
from  chemistry,  nor  from  what  are  called  "specific 
manures." 

Next  to  a  compost  of  muck  and  barn  manures,  a 
mixture  of  muck  and  ashes  is  the  most  common,  and 
by  experienced  persons  is  considered  the  most  profit- 
able. It  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  convenient 
mixtures,  as  ashes  may  be  transported  a  considerable 
distance  with  little  expense.  The  farmer  who  does 
not  understand  what  the  precise  elements  of  ashes 
are,  generally  accords  to  them  the  great  merit  as  a 
fertilizer,  when  really  the  small  quantity  used  would 
have  but  little  effect  if  it  did  not  act  upon  the 
mold,  or  muck  and  render  it  available  as  food  for 
lants.  The  value  of  ashes  to  be  used  as  muck  is 
often  estimated  as  high  as  fifty  cents  a  bushel,  in 
an  imbleacbed  state.  About  two  bushels  of  good 
unbleached  ashes  to  the  forty  bushels  of  muck,  is  a 
fair  proportion.  A  compost  of  muck  and  oyster- 


48  w  ALL'S   MANUAL 

shell  lime  has  been  used  with  much  effect.  If  oyster- 
shell  lime  cannot  be  obtained,  the  best  unslaked 
stone  lime  is  the  cheapest,  because  it  is  more  effective 
in  the  compost,  and  swells  very  much  in  bulk  when 
air-slacked  for  use,  One  bushel  of  lime  to  fifty  bushels 
of  muck,  with  half  a  peck  of  salt  dissolved  in  water 
enough  to  slake  the  lime  to  a  fine  powder— the  lime 
being  slaked  no  faster  than  wTanted  for  use — and 
xspread  immediately,  while  warm,  over  the  layers  of 
muck,  which  should  be  a  foot  thick,  is  the  best  way* 
Continue  the  heap  in  this  wTay  until  your  materials 
arc  used  up.  In  about  three  weeks  a  powerful  decom- 
position will  be  apparent,  When  this  ceases  the 
compost  is  ready  for  use.  The  author  has  made,  on 
medium  land,,  forty  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre,  with 
twenty  wagon  loads  of  this  compost,  using  a  shovel* 
full  of  compost  to  the  hill  of  corn, 

A  compost  of  twenty  bushels  of  finely  sifted  muck 
•or  mold,  one  bushel  of  Peruvian  guano,  one  bushel 
supcrphoshate  of  lime,  the  author  has  found  to  be  a 
Very  active  .fertilizer  for  corn,  This  amount  was 
applied  to  one  acre  of  land  at  a  cost  of  $7  50  per 
acre.  The  land  would  have  produced,  without  fer- 
tilizing, about  eighteen  or  twenty  bushels  of  corn  to 
the  acre.  There  was  gathered  forty- two  bushels  of 
good  merchantable  corn  from  the  acre  by  this  extra 
expenditure.  About  one-third  of  a  pound  of  the 
mixture  was  used  to  each  hill  of  corn  ;  it  was  dropped 
on  the  corn  with  a  wooden  scoop,  so  constructed  as 
to  hold  that  amount  of  the  mixture. 

In  the  Southern  States,  where  cotton  seed  is  so 
abundant,  a  compost  of  cotton  seed,  vegetable  mold, 
and  land  plaster  (sulphate  of  lime)  will  make  a  rich 


O  tf    A  G  11 1  0  'U  L  T  "U  ft  £ • .  40 

and  powerful  fertilizer.  Make  the  compost  heap  of 
:such  a  size  and  shape  to  suit  convenience,  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner-:  A  layer  of  cotton  seed  six  inches  in 
depth,  over  which  sow  a  light  dressing  of  plaster, 
then  a  layer  of  vegetable  mold  six  inches  in  depth, 
and  so  on,  until  the  pile  is  as  high  as  desired,  taking 
care  to  top  off  the  heap  with  at  least  one  foot  of 
mold.  If  the  materials  are  very  dry,  the  layers 
should  be  dampened  with  a  watering  pot,  such  as 
Used  in  gardens.  In  a  few  days  fermentation  will  set 
in,  the  lime  and  sulphuric  acid  in  the  plaster  will  eat 
up  the  cotton  seed,  which,  in  two  or  three  weeks,  will 
be  entirely  decomposed,  while  the  vegetable  mold 
will  absorb  all  the  valuable  gaseous  ingredients  given 
-off  by  the  heat  of  fermentation.  This  compost 
should  be  made  under  shelter,  but  if  not  convenient 
to  do  so,  a  thicker  layer  of  mold  should  be  placed 
on  top  of  the  pile.  Fifty  bushels  of  this  compost 
will  be  equal  to  fifty  bushels  of  fine  cotton  seed  in  its 
fertilizing  effect,  and  without  the  danger  of  killing 
the  young  plants,  as  is  often  the  case  when  cotton 
seed  alone  is  used.  About  one  bushel  of  plaster 
(sulphate  of  lime),  and  one  bushel  of  ashes  to  twenty 
bushels  of  cotton  seed  will  be  sufficient. 

Dark  loams  or  soils  containing  much  vegetable 
matter  are  but  little  benefited  by  the  application  of 
muck.  Such  soils  have  long  been  favorable  to  vege- 
tation, as  they  naturally  abound  in  potash  and  other 
ingredients  upon  which  plants  are  lively  feeders. 
But  even  such  land  as  this  may  be  so  constantly 
cropped,  and  its  products  carried  away  without  the 
return  of  any  equivalents  that  an  application  of 
muck  may  become  necessary.  The  author  has  known 

o 


50  WALL'S  MANTTA r, 

hills  and  hill  sides  so  badly  treated  as  to  become* 
nearly  barren  of  vegetation  on  the  surface,  and  the 
soil  itself  so  sharp  and  sandy  as  scarcely  to  show  a 
vestige  of  vegetable  matter ;  but  upon  the  applica- 
tion of  muck  and .  manure,  muck  and  ashes,  or  muck 
and  lime  composts,  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  to  twenty 
wagon  loads  per  acre,,  to  produce  again  as  liberal 
crops  as  they  did  before  their  original  fertility  became 
exhausted. 

As  to  the  quantity  of  muck  to»be  applied  to  the 
acre,  depends  much  on  the  circumstances  of  each 
case — no  definite  rule  can  be  laid  down.  It  may  be 
observed,  however,  that  very  large  accumulations  of 
muck  are  not  desirable  on  uplands.  Ten  or  twelve 
per  cent,  of  the  soil  would  be  more  beneficial  than  a 
larger  quantity.  That  amount,  with  the  presence  of 
proper  salts  in  the  soil,  would  supply  the  plants  as 
well  as  if  the  quantity  were  indefinitely  increased. 

The  time  will  come  when  the  farmer  will  look  upon 
muck,  or  vegetable  mold,  as  one  of  the  most  valuable 
agents  Nature  has  bestowed  upon  mankind.  It  will 
be  the  most  economical,  and,  next  to  charcoal  dust, 
the  best  absorbent  '-to  use  in  his  stables,  barns,  sties, 
sinks,  reservoirs  and  cellars ;  indeed  it  cannot  be 
dispensed  with  and  leave  any  hope  of  profitable 
farming.  Steaming  manure  heaps  should  be  covered 
with  it,  to  absorb^the  gases  ;  floors  of  horse- stalls 
should  be  sprinkled  with  it,  as  it  readily  absorbs 
ammonia,  and  renders  the  air  clastic  and  pure. 

Leibig,  the  great  German  chemist,  said  he  could 
judge  of  the  commercial  prosperity  of  a  nation  by  the 
quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  it  consumed ;.  and  Mr.  Pusey, 
a  member  of  the  British  Parliament,  said  it  was  a  good 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  51 

index  as  to  the  degree  of  civilization  of  a  people.  So 
we  may  judge  of  the  character  of  an  agricultural 
nation  by  the  amount  and  use  of  its  muck  heaps.  These 
muck  piles  are  the  bases  of  all  permanent  enterprise 
in  farming;  they  crown  the  hills  with  corn,  and  the 
valleys  with  waving  grain ;  they  clothe  the  fields 
with  grass  and  sprinkle  the  lawn  with  flowers ;  fill 
yielding  branches  with  tempting  fruits,  freight  ships, 
load  railroad  cars,  and  cover  our  tables  with  the  rich 
productions  of  the  earth. 


CHAPTEE  VIII, 

THE   AGRICULTURAL    STAPLES    OF   THE    SOUTH. 

Let  us  now*  take  Up  the  different  crops  cultivated 
in  the  Southern  States,  and  apply  to  each,  separately, 
the  principles,  facts,  experiments  and  illustrations  set 
forth  in  this  work. 

IND  IAN   CORN, 

As  the  first  and  most  important  crop,  we  take  up 
Indian  corn,  and  discuss  it.  It  may  not  be  uninter- 
esting to  say  something  of  the  origin  and  history  of 
this  valuable  plant.  There  has  been  much  written  on 
its  Eastern  origin.  It  did  not  grow  in  that  part  of 
Asia  watered  by  the  Indus  at  the  time  of  the  expedi- 
tion, of  Alexander  the  Great.  It  is  not  among  the 
productions  of  the  country  mentioned  by  Nearchus, 
the  commander  of  the  fleet;  neither  is  it  noticed  by 


62  WALL'S   MANUAL 

any  of  the  ancient  authors,  and  even  as  late  as  the  year 
1491  (the  year  before  Columbus  discovered  America), 
Joan  de  Cuba,  in  his  "Ortus  Sanatus,"  makes  no 
mention  of  it.  It  has  never  been  found  in  any  ancient 
tumulus,  sarcophagus  or  pyramid ;  nor  has  it  been 
represented  in  any  ancient  painting,  sculpture,  or 
work  of  art)  except  in  America,  But  in  this  country, 
according  to  La  Vega,  one  of  the  earliest  Peruvian 
historians,  the  palace  gardens  of  the  Incas  were 
ornamented  with  maize^  in  gold  and  silver,  with  all 
the  grains,  spikes,  stalks,  and  leaves,  in  its  exact 
and  natural  shape — 'a  proof  no  less  of  the  wealth  of 
the  Incas  than  of  their  veneration  for  the  grain,  In 
further  proof  of  the  American  origin  of  this  plant,  it 
may  be  stated  that  it  is  found  growing  wild  from  the 
Kocky  Mountains,  in  North  America,  to  the  humid 
forests  of  Paraguay,  in  South  America,  It  is,  more- 
over, a  well  authenticated  fact  that  maize  was  found 
in  a  state  of  cultivation  among  the  Aborigines  on  the 
Island  of  Cuba  at  the  time  of  its  discovery  by  Colum* 
bus,  as  well  as  other  places  in  America  first  explored 
by  Europeans. 

Analysis. — We  find  the  analysis  of  the  ashes  of  the 
grain  and  stalk  of  corn  to  be  as  follows : 

Cotfn,  Stalk 

Grain  of.  of  Corn. 

potash 27.2  per  cent,  28.G  per  cent. 

Soda 5.3     "         "  9.G     " 

Lime 1.4     '  8.3     ' 

Magnesia , 15.7     '  6.6     '' 

Oxide  of  Iron 3  of  1  per  cent.  0.8  of  1  per  cent. 

Phosphate  of  Lime 47.0  per  cent.  17.1  per  cent. 

Sulphuric  Acid 1.6     "        "  0.7  of  1  per  cent. 

Silica 1.2    "        "  27.0  per  cent. 

Chlorine 3  of  1  per  cent. 

100.  100. 

Fertilizers  Proper  to  its  Cultivation. — We  can  now 
discuss  intelligibly  the  mineral  and  vegetable  manures 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  53 

which  should  bo  applied  to  the  successful  cultivation 
of  this  important  crop. 

A  crop  of  twenty  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre  will  take 
away  from  the  soil  a  considerable  quantity  of  the 
"phosphate  of  lime;"  hence  at  least  one  hundred 
pounds  of  bone  dust  should  be  applied  to  the  land 
where  this  important  ingredient  has  been  partially 
exhausted.  If  cotton  seed  is  applied  to  corn  in  the 
hill,  no  bone  dust  will  be  needed  as  the  cotton  seed 
contains  a  large  percentage  of  the  phosphate  of  lime, 
and  is  in  itself  a  rich  manure.  The  sulphate  of  lime, 
or  plaster,  ought  to  be  applied  to  corn ;  it  is  a  cheap 
fertilizer,  and  acts  with  wonderful  effect.  This  salt 
is  composed  of:  lime,  thirty- three  per  cent. ;  sulphuric 
acid,  forty-four  per  cent.  Ashes,  plaster,  and  cotton 
seed,  composted  at  the  rate  of  two  bushels  of  ashes, 
one  bushel  of  plaster,  and  five  bushels  of  cotton  seed  per 
acre,  one  handful  to  be  applied  in  the  hill,  will  have  a 
marked  effect. 

Of  course  it  is  not  to  bo  understood  that  we  recom- 
mend mineral  manures,  to  the  exclusion  of  barn-yard 
and  stable  manures.  These  valuable  fertilizers  con- 
tain all  the  mineral  ingredients  in  the  ashes  of  plants, 
and  in  the  very  best  form  to  be  taken  up  by  growing 
plants.  But  with  all  the  care  and  labor  the  farmer 
may  bestow,  he  can  manure  annually  but  a  small 
portion  of  his  land  with  stable  or  barn-yard  manure; 
hence  these  mineral  fertilizers  become  a  necessity,  to 
enable  him  to  make  a  general  and  extensive  appli- 
cation. 

Lime,  plaster,  and  ashes,  composted  with  swamp 
mud  or  mold  from  the  woods,  and  scrapings  from  the 
ditch  and  creek  banks,  at  the  rate  of  one  bushel  of 


54  W  A  L  L  '  S     M  A  N  U  A  L 

lime,  two  bushels  of  ashes,  one  bushel  of  plaster,  to 
twenty  bushels  of  mold  or  muck  to  the  acre,  forms 
a  valuable  fertilizer  for  corn,  applied  at  the  rate  of 
one  pound  to  the  hill  of  corn. 

The  most  important  point  in  the  cultivation  of  this 
crop  is  the  preparation  of  the  land  by  deep  and 
thorough  plowing.  Corn  roots  run  deep  enough  to 
avail  themselves  of  the  benefit  of  all  the  soil  which 
the  plow  can  break.  The  earing  season  of  corn,  too, 
is  a  period  of  frequent  drouths.  Deep  and  thorough 
plowing,  in  the  preparation  of  the  land,  is  the  best 
preventive  against  drouths.  The  time  of  plowing 
should  be  determined  by  the  condition  of  the  soil. 
The  winter  frosts  are  of  great  service  in  stiff  lands. 
These  lands  should,  if  possible,  be  plowed  in  the  fall 
or  early  winter.  All  gross,  or  lands  with  much 
vegetable  matter  growing  upon  them,  should  be 
plowed  in  the  autumn,  so  as  to  allow  the  vegetable 
matter,  which  is  turned  under,  to  decay  and  become 
food  for  plants.  Bottom  and  all  loose  soils  contain- 
ing much  organic  matter,  need  not  be  broken  until 
near  the  time  for  planting.  The  weed  and  grass 
seeds  which  have  sprouted  will  be  killed,  and  the  corn 
have  an  opportunity  to  get  in  advance  of  the  wTeeds. 
Soils  cannot  be  made  too  mellow  for  corn,  nor  be  kept 
too  mellow  during  its  growth. 

The  distance  apart  at  which  corn  should  be  planted 
varies  with  the  richness  and  physical  properties  of 
the  soil.  A  rich  soil  can,  of  course,  sustain  a  greater 
number  of  stalks  than  one  which  does  not  equal  it  in 
strength.  But  of  two  soils,  both  equally  fertile,  the 
one  of  stiff  clay  and  the  other  of  dark  loam,  the  latter 
will  bear  closer  planting  than  the  former,  because  it 


<0  P     A  G  R  I  C  U  L  T  U  R  E  .  55 

absorbs  more  freely  the  light  and  heat  of  the  HUH  ; 
but  in  every  instance  there  is  a  limit  to  the  number 
of  stalks -to  be  left  on  the  ground.  Young  farmers 
arc'  more  apt  to  -err  in  having  their  corn  too  thick, 
than  in  having  it  too  thin.  This  crop  demands  more 
than  simply  an  abundance  of  nutrition-  from  the  soil ; 
it  requires  a  full  supply  of  both  light  and  heat,  with 
a  free  circulation  of  air, 

Modes  of  Planting. — There  .are  two  modes  of  plant-, 
ing  practised  by  the  best  farmers,  both  of  which  have 
their  advantages  under  peculiar  circumstances.  By 
one  of  these  methods,  the  land  to  be  planted  is  marked 
off  by  bedding  up  in  parallel  ridges,  and  at  the  proper 
distance  apart  for  rows,  varied  according  to  the  fertil- 
ity of  the  soil.  If  the  land  is  level,  or  nearly  so,  the 
rows  are  generally  made  straight  •  but  if  the  land  is 
hilly,  they  are  made  to  wind  around  the  faces  of  the 
hills,  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  nearly  horizontal.  The 
width  between  the  rows  varies  from  three  to  five 
feet.  These  ridges  or  beds  are  then  split  with  a 
suitable  plow,  and  the  corn  dropped  into  the  furrow, 
a,t  from  one  to  three  feet  apart,  and  covered  with  a 
harrow  or  the  hoe,  to  a  depth  which  should  not  exceed 
two  inches,  unless  the  soil  is  very  dry  or  sandy. 

The  other  mode  of  planting  differs  from  the  fore- 
going in  the  method  of  arranging  the  rows.  The 
land  is  laid  off  in  two  directions,  at  right  angles  to 
each  other,  so  that  one  set  of  furrows  run  lengthwise, 
and  another  set  run  across  the  field,  dividing  the 
whole  field  into  little  squares.  At  the  corners  of 
these  squares,  where  the  furrows  cross  each  other, 
the  corn  is  dropped.  The  rows  must  be  wide  enough 
apart  for  a  plow  to  run  conveniently  both  ways 


56  WALL'S    MANUAL 

between  the  hills  of  corn.  In  the  large  varieties  of 
corn  cultivated  in  the  Southern  States,  two  stalks 
are  as  many  as  will  grow  to  full  vigor  in  one  hill. 
The  principal  advantage  from  the  latter  method  is 
that  the  corn  can  be  more  thoroughly  cultivated  with 
the  plow,  and  less  hoe  work  is  necessary.  The  stir- 
ring of  the  soil  is  more  complete,  and  the  grass  and 
weeds  more  thoroughly  eradicated,  than  they  can  be 
by  running  the  plow  only  in  one  direction.  The  sun, 
also,  has  more  free  admission  to  the  soil.  This 
method  is  impracticable  on  steep  or  hilly  land. 

Quantity  of  Seed, — Each  hill  should  have  two  or 
three  times  as  many  grains  as  there  are  stalks  to  be 
left  growing.  By  this  means,  if  the  seed  has  been 
carefully  selected  and  kept  in  a  dry  place,  the  trouble 
of  replanting  may  be  avoided.  Another  great  advan- 
tage arising  from  an  abundant  application  of  seed  is, 
that  however  perfect  the  grains  may  seem  to  bo 
when  planted,  some  will  produce  vigorous  and  healthy 
plants,  while  a  few,  at  least,  will  produce  only  such 
as  arc  feeble  and  sickly,  and  can  never,  by  any  after 
culture,  be  made  productive.  Five  or  six  grains  in  a 
hill  will  almost  always  secure  enough  of  the  best 
quality  to  be  loft. 

Every  farmer  should  test  the  capacity  of  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  his  land  for  corn,  by  actual  experiment, 
lie  should,  on  different  parts  of  the  same  quality  of 
soil,  try  the  cultivation  of  one,  two  or  three  stalks  to 
every  square  yard,  until  he  finds  out  the  number  best 
suited  to  his  soil.  He  will  then  know  how  thick  to 
plant  his  corn,  and  establish  rules  for  himself  far 
superior  to  any  theories  he  may  find  laid  down  in 
books.  The  points  of  the  first  importance  in  the 


'0  ¥'    A  O  ft  I  C  \J  L  T  tr  R  K .  57 

of  corn,  after  the  planting  has  been  properly 
•executed,  are :  first,  keep  the  ground  t-lear  of  every- 
thing which  has  the  sa.mc  period  of  growth  with  the 
•crop ;  second,  stir  the  soil  thoroughly,  an-d  to  as  great 
depth  as  possible,  during  the  early-stages  of  the  growth 
of  the  crop.  In  clay  soils,  where  a  strong  grass  sod 
lias  been  turned  under,  a  good  plan  is  to  run  a 
•Coulter  on  each  side  of  the  row  as  soon  as  the  corn 
has  conic  up ;  the  middle  spaces  may  be  stirred  with 
a  shovel- plow  or  a  cultivator-.  After  this  one  deep 
plowing  will  generally  be  sufficient. 

Many  farmers,  especially  in  the  Southern  States, 
prefer  the  plan  of  running  a  small  mold- board  or 
turning  plow,  as  near  the  rows  as  possible,  at 
the  first  working,  in  such  a  way  as  to  throw  the 
•earth  off  from  the  corn,  following  with  the  hoes 
to  thin  the  corn  and  cover  any  roots  too  much 
exposed.  This  is  followed  by  a  second  use  of  the 
same  plow  run  in  an  opposite  direction,  so  as  to 
throw  the  earth  back  again  toward  the  row.  This 
method  has  some  advantages,  and  is  adopted  in  the 
cultivation  of  other  crops.  It  gives  free  access  of  air 
to  the  soil  about  the  roots  of  plants,  and  gives  the 
portion  of  soil  turned  twice  with  the  plow  a  complete 
stirring;  it  destroys  completely  the  first  weeds  and 
grass  which  spring  up  near  the  rows.  As  the  corn 
approaches  the  period  of  tasseling,  the  roots  spread 
with  great  rapidity,  after  which  deep  plowing  wrill 
result  in  great  injury  to  the  crop.  All  work  after  the 
corn  is  large  enough  to  bunch  or  tassel  should  be  done 
,  with  the  cultivator  or  hoe.  The  land  may  thus  be 
kept  clean,  and  the  roots  left  to  spread  themselves 
out  on  all  sides  between  rows. 
3* 


58  WALL'S   MANTJA L 

.Harvesting  the  Crop. — There  arc  various  rncthoxls 
pursued  in  harvesting  corn.  For  securing  the  fodder 
there  arc  two  methods  extensively  employed,  both  of 
which  are  so  familiar  to  every  one  living  in  a  corn- 
growing  country  that  a  brief  notice  of  each,  with  its: 
advantages  and  disadvantages,  .will  be  all  that  is 
necessary. 

Bidding  and  Topping  are  performed  where  the 
securing  of  the  fodder  within  the  smallest  compassr 
and  in  the  most  portable  form,  is  desired.  The  blades 
below  the  car,  with  the  first  one  above,  are  stripped 
off  with  the  hands  and  placed  between  the  stalks 
standing  close  together,  until  they  are  sufficiently 
cured  to  be  tied  up  in  small  bundles  and  secured  in  a 
stack  or  under  a  shelter.  The  blades  are  in  order  for 
being  tied,  or  in  any  way  handled  only  in  the  morning 
or  evening,  and  on  cloudy  days.  If  handled  in  dry 
weather,  especially  if  it  is  windy,  there  is  always 
considerable  loss  from  their  breaking  into  fragments, 

Topping  consists  in  cutting  off  that  portion  of  the 
stalk  above  the  ear.  The  tops  thus  cut  are  allowed  to 
lie  in  small  heaps  until  partially  cured ;  they  are  then 
tied  in  bundles,  or  put  together  in  the  form  of  shocks, 
in  which  condition  they  stand  until  perfectly  cured. 
The  next  step  is  to  secure  them  against  the  weather, 
by  stacking  or  putting  them  under  shelter.  Both 
blades  and  tops,  when  secured  without  much  exposure 
to  rain,  are  about  equal  in  value  to  the  same  weight 
of  good  hay.  But  to  secure  the  full  forage  value  of 
tops  they  must  be  cut  into  small  fragments,  so  that 
the  animal  to  which  they  are  fed  may  be  able  to 
masticate  them  easily. 

When  corn  tops  are  finely  cut,  and  mixed  with  a 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  51) 

little  meal  and  water,  horses  will  consume  almost 
every  fragment,  and  thrive  remarkably  well. 

After  topping,  the  corn  is  left  on  the  stalks  until  it  is 
sufficiently  dry  to  cut,  It  is  then  pulled  off  with  the 
shuck  still  on  it,  and  put  into  a  well  ventilated  crib, 
This  plan  is  adopted  in  most  of  the  Southern  States, 
on  account  of  the  depredations  of  the  weevil,  and 
because  it  is  thought  to  keep  in  a  sweeter  and  more 
palatable  condition.  But  in  other  States  the  corn  is 
shucked  and  then  put  into  the  crib.  A  Ijttle  salt 
sprinkled  over  the  corn  as  it  is  placed  into  the  crib 
has  a  good  effect. 

Another  method  is  to  out  the  stalks  off  at  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  as  soon  as  the  ears  have 
become  hard,  and  set  them  up  in  small  stacks 
(shocks),  to  be  cured  by  the  air  which  circulates 
freely  through  them.  In  this  condition  the  crop 
stands  till  the  grain  is  dry  enough  to  be  put  into 
cribs.  It  is  then  shucked,  generally  without  being 
pulled  off  the  stalk.  The  fodder,  including  the 
shucks,  is  then  fed  to  cattle  without  cutting.  The 
blades,  shucks,  and  a  little  of  the  slender  part  of  the 
stalks,  are  eaten,  while  the  remainder  is  trodden 
down,  and  forms  valuable  litter  to  become  incorpo- 
rated with  barn- yard  and  stable  manure. 

Another  plan  is  that  of  allowing  the  whole  plant 
to  stand  untouched  until  the  corn  is  ready  to  bo 
gathered ;  when,  after  the  crop  has  been  removed, 
cattle  are  allowed  to  gather  what  they  will  of  the 
standing  fodder.  In  this  case,  the  fodder  is  of  little 
value. 

These  respective  methods  have  their  advantages 
and  disadvantages,  and  the  one  to  be  pursued  must 


60  WALL'S    MANUAL 

be  determined  by  the  farmer  himself,  according  to 
the  circumstances  by  which  he  is  surrounded.  The 
first  plan  has  the  advantage  of  securing  the  fodder  in 
the  most  portabla  and  most  valuable  form.  It  is 
especially  desirable  in  places  where  hay  is  not  easily 
made;  but  it  has  the  disadvantage  of  making  a  lighter 
crop  of  grain.  The  reason  of  this  is,  that  the  growth 
of  the  corn  ceases  almost  entirely  as  soon  as  the 
blades  and  tops  are  removed.  The  second  plan, 
cutting  the  stalks  off  at  the  ground,  has  the  advantage 
of  securing  the  whole  stalk  for  fodder  and  litter, 
while  the  corn  is  well  secured,  provided  the  shocks 
are  made  small,  so  that  the  air  can  circulate  freely 
and  prevent  molding.  If  the  corn  is  to  be  ^suc- 
ceeded by  wheat,  this  is  the  only  plan  by  which  the 
ground  can  be  put  in  good  condition  for  that  purpose. 
The  chief  disadvantage  attending  this  plan,  is  the 
heavy  labor  of  cutting  and  stacking  the  corn,  and 
the  inconvenience  of  handling  the  bulky  mass  of 
fodder.  The  advantages  of  the  third  method  are, 
first,  the  saving  of  labor ;  and  secondly,  of  securing 
the  heaviest  product  of  grain  which  the  soil  and 
culture  can  produce.  The  disadvantages  are,  the 
entire  loss  of  the  fodder,  the  greatly  inferior  value  of 
t\\Q  stalks  for  improving  the  soil,  below  what  would 
r-esult  from  using  them  for  litter  in  the  barn  yard. 

The  crop  of  corn  should  be  allowed  to  become  as 
thoroughly  dry  in  the  field  as  the  season  and  the 
time  required  for  gathering  will  admit.  Every 
experienced  farmer  knows  how  readily  corn  becomes 
musty  when  thrown  into  a  large  bulk,  in  a  damp 
condition.  This  often  takes  place  around  the  cob, 
when  the  external  condition  of  the  ear  indicates 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  01 

entire  dryness.  To  guard  against  damage  from  this 
source,  the  cribs  should  be  well  ventilated.  The 
walls  should  have  numerous  openings  for  the  free 
admission  of  air.  The  floor  should  be  elevated  at 
least  twelve  or  eighteen  inches  above  the  ground,  to 
permit  the  air  to  circulate  freely  at  the  bottom 
of  the  bulk. 

In  this  connection  it  may  not  be  inappropriate  to 
give  an  instance  of  high  farming  for  corn,  reported  to 
the  North  Carolina  State  Agricultural  Society,  1858, 
by  Commissioners  appointed  by  the  Society  to 
examine  the  crops  and  award  premiums.  They 
awarded  a  premium  of  one  hundred  dollars. 

Statement  of  Mr.  T.  S.  Harris'  crop  of  corn,  one 
acre,  planted  and  worked  as  follows : 

Thirty-two  loads  (two-horse)  stable  manure $  32  00 

Spreading  the  same 2"  50 

Plowing  and  harrowing 6  00 

Planting  and  seed 2  00 

Hoeing  and  cultivation 5  00 

Harvesting  and  shucking 5  00 

Interest  on  land  and  taxes 2  50 

Cost  of  raising $  5G  00 


Value  of  102  bushels  of  corn  at  $1  ...................................................  $102  00 

Value  of  li^  tons  fodder  at  $10  ........................................................    12  50 


$114  50 
Less  cost  of  cultivation  ...................................................................    56  00 


Profit $  58  50 

The  above  crop  was  planted  on  the  12th  day  of 
April,  upon  land  plowed  with  a  three- horse  plow, 
and  subsoiled  with  a  snake-head  coulter.  The  land 
was  an  average  of  a  thirty- acre  lot  of  upland,  which 
would  have  brought,  without  manure,  about  twenty 
bftshels  to  the  acre ;  the  remainder  of  the  thirty- acre 
field  averaged  eighteen  and  a  half  bushels  to  the  acre. 
After  preparing  the  ground  and  plan  ting  the  corn,  the- 


62  W  A  L  L  '  S     M  A  N  U  A  L 

crop  was  run  over  four  times  with  the  plow,  and  the 
ground  left  level. 

What  is  called  "high  farming"  mil  pay.  The  same 
argument  that  holds  good  for  a  corn  crop  will  hold 
good  for  other  crops. 


CHAPTEE    IX. 

THE    COTTON    CROP. 

We  take  it  for  granted  that  every  intelligent 
planter  would  like  to  know  something  of  the  history 
of  the  cotton  plant ;  and  as  all  ma}^  not  have  had  the 
opportunity  to  read  its  history  in  WAILE'S  valuable 
report  of  the  Geology  and  Agriculture  of  Mississippi, 
we  here  insert  his  account  as  being  the  best  that  we 
have  ever  seen  given,  and  one  that  must-  prove 
highly  interesting. 

THE    COTTON    PLAN  T 1 TS    ORIGIN. 

The  cotton  plant,  to  which  the  generic  term 
gossypiurn  has  been  applied  by  botanists,  is  of  the 
natural  order  malvana),  to  which  the  holly-hock, 
mallow  and  okra  also  belong.  Although  of  com- 
paratively recent  introduction  into  the  United  States, 
the  cotton  plant  was  known  in  the  earliest  ages  of 
the  Old  World.  Herodotus  describes  the  plant  as 
"  producing  in  the  Indies  a  wool  of  finer  and  better 
quality  than  that  of  sheep."  Pliny  mentions  certain 
"  wool -bearing  trees  which  were  known  in  Upper 
Egypt,  bearing  fruit  like  a  gourd,  the  size  of  a  quince, 
which,  bursting  when  ripe,  displays  a  ball  of  downy 


OFAGRICULTURE.  6.3 

wool,  from  which  are  made  costly  garments  resem- 
bling linen."  At  the  commencement  of  the  Chris- 
tian era  it  had  become  an  article  of  commerce  in  the 
ports  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  the  remote  provinces  of 
India  had  at  that  early  period  acquired  a  celebrity 
for  their  cotton  fabrics.  The  popular  name  cotton, 
from  the  Italian  cotone,  is  said  to  be  derived  from  its 
resemblance  to  the  down  which  adheres  to  the 
quince,  termed  by  the  Italians  cotogni.  Many  varie- 
ties of  the  plant  are  described,  and  among  them  the 
perennial  or  cotton  tree,  which  grows  spontaneously 
in  Brazil  and  Peru.  The  annual  herbaceous  varieties 
only  are  those  cultivated  in  the  United  States.  The 
average  height  of  the  plant  in  land  of  medium 
quality  is  about  five  feet.  In  very  fertile  soil,  it 
attains  to  double  that  height,  whilst,  on  exhausted 
and  sterile,  it  becomes  quite  a  dwarf.  Its  appear r 
ance  somewhat  resembles  that  of  the  okra  plant,  but 
is  much  more  branched,  and  the  leaves  less  in  size 
and  of  more  uniform  shape.  The  branches  are  long 
and  jointed,  and  bearing  at  each  joint  a  boll  or  cap- 
sule, containing  seed  and  the  wool.  Each  boll  is 
accompanied  by  a  broad,  indented  leaf,  springing 
from  the  same  joint  of  the  branch,  resting  upon  a 
foot- stalk  three  or  four  inches  in  length.  The  woody 
fibre  of  the  plant  is  white,  spungy  and  brittle,  but  is 
invested  with  a  thick  brown  skin  or  bark,  which  is 
pliant  and  tenacious.  The  root  is  branching,  with  a 
tap  root  penetrating  deeply  into  the  subsoil,  and*  is 
less  affected  by  drought  than  most  other  plants.  The 
blossom  is  cup- shaped,  two  or  three  inches  in  length, 
never  widely  expanded,  white  on  the  first  day,  until 
noon,  then  changing  gradually  to  red,  closing 


G4  WALL'S  MANUAL 

gradually  for  the  next  day  or  two,  with  a  twist  over 
the  germ  of  the  boll,  by  which  it  is  speedily  detached 
in  its  rapid  growth,  when  it  withers  and  is  cast  off, 
leaving  the  boll  invested  by  a  capacious  three  part, 
dentate  calyx,  technically  known  as  the  square.  This 
calyx  or  square,  when  containing  the  germ,  and 
flower,  are  liable  to  be  disjointed,  and  fall,  from  the 
long  prevalence  of  drought,  but  more  so,  when  a 
rainy  season  suddenly  succeeds,  occasioning  a  second 
growth  from  the  rapid  elaboration  of  sap. 

The  cotton  plant  very  often  commences  flowering 
about  the  1st  of  June,  and  ceases  about  the  1st  of 
November,  when  the  plant  is  killed  by  the  frost. 
The  bolls  are  egg-shaped,  rather  under  the  size  of 
the  egg  of  the  domestic  fowl,  pointed  at  the  ex- 
tremity, expanding  widely  when,  fully  mature,  ex- 
hibiting a  brown,  tough,  woody  seed-vessel,  some- 
what horny  in  texture,  to  which  the  locks  of  fibre 
or  ]jnt  adhere. 

The  culture  of  cotton  wras  introduced  into  China 
about  the  thirteenth  century,  and  has  extended 
largely ;  the  Nankin  variety,  especially  produced 
there,  has  acquired  a  wide  notoriety,  forming  a  dis- 
tinct fabric,  which  is  even  yet  imported  into  this 
country.  Georgia  is  said  to  have  taken  the  lead  in 
the  cultivation  of  this  plant ;  yet  the  first  shipment 
of  cotton  known  was  in  1784,  when  eight  bags  were 
seized  by  the  customhouse  officers  at  Liverpool,  it 
not  being  believed  that  even  the  small  quantity  of 
two  thousand  pounds  had  been  raised  in  the  United 
States.  Seed  was  introduced  into  Georgia  from 
Jamaica  and  Pernambuco  in  1786,  but  the  cultivation 
of  the  Sea  Island  variety  was  not  established  until 


O  F     A  G  R  I  C  U  L  T  U  R  E  .  65 

1789.  The  upland  or  Georgia  (bowed  cotton)  was 
successfully  introduced  about  the  same  time.  Cotton 
was  doubtless  indigenous  to  America,  having  been 
found  growing  wild  in  the  West  India  Islands  when 

O  O 

discovered  by  Columbus,  and  at  the  period  of  the 
conquest  of  Mexico,  by  Cortes,  the  natives  made 
"  large  webs  as  delicate  and  fine  as  those  of  Holland." 
Their  other  cotton  fabrics  were  varied  and  beautiful, 
and  constituted  their  chief  article  of  dress.  "When, 
and  from  whence  the  plant  was  first  introduced  into 
Mississippi,  is  not  certainly  known,  most  probably  by 
the  early  French  colonists  from  St.  Domingo.  It 
would  seem  its  cultivation  there  and  in  Louisiana,  on 
a  small  scale,  for  domestic  purposes,  preceded  that  of 
Georgia.  Charlevoix,  on  his  visit  to  Natchez,  in 
1722,  saw  the  cotton  plant  growing  in  the  garden  of 
Sieur  Le  ISToir,  the  company's  clerk.  Bienville  states 
in  one  of  his  dispatches,  dated  in  April,  1735,  that 
the  cultivation  of  cotton  proved  advantageous.  It 
is  stated  that  by  Major  Stoddard  to  have  been  culti- 
vated in  the  colony  in  1740,  and  Governor  Vandrcuil 
in  a  dispatch  to  the  French  minister,  mentions  cotton 
among  the  articles  which  came  down  the  river 
annually  to  New  Orleans.  This  dispatch  was  dated 
in  1746. 

Among  the  varieties  of  the  cotton  plant  may  be 
enumerated  the  Sea  Island,  the  Upland,  the  Tennessee 
Green  Seed,  the  Mexican,  Pernambuco,  Surinam, 
Egyptian,  etc. 

The  Sea  Island  is  confined  to  a  very  few  planta- 
tions on  our  seaboard.  It  is  superior  to  all  others  in 
the  length  and  fineness  of  its  staple.  It  bears  a  high 
price,  generally  thrice  as  much  as  the  best  upland?, 


CG  w  ALL'  s    M  A  N  u  A  L 

but  from  the  expense  of  its  preparation  for  market, 
is  not  considered  more  profitable  to  cultivate  than 
the  short  staple. 

The  upland,  first  cultivated  at  the  South,  differs 
from  the  preceding  in  the  color  of  the  blossom,  the 
size  and  form  of  the  boll,  and  in  the  length  and  fine- 
ness of  the  staple.  Both  have  smooth,  black,  naked 
seed.  All  other  varieties  seem  to  have  a  tendency  to 
return  to  this  by  long  continued  cultivation. 

The  Tennessee  cotton  has  a  seed  invested  with  a 
thick  green  down  adhering  firmly  to.it.  It  is  difficult 
to  gather,  but  it  superseded  the  Hack  seed  for  a  few 
years,  from  its  freedom  from  the  rot — a  disease  with 
which  the  black  seed  had  become  infected. 

They  both  gave  way  to  the  Mexican,  which  is 
now  chiefly  cultivated,  or  is  the  basis  of  all  the  varie- 
ties now  in  favor  with  the  planter.  The  superiority 
of  the  Mexican  variety  consists  in  its  vigorous  growth, 
the  size  of  the  boll,  and  its  free  expansion,  affording 
great  facility  in  gathering  the  crop.  The  objections 
to  it  originally  were  the  coarsenesss  of  the  staple 
and  loss  sustained  by  its  falling  out,  if  not  gathered 
speedily.  These  defects  have  been,  in  a  great  degree, 
corrected  by  cultivation.  The  Mexican  seed  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  first  introduced  by  the  late 
Walter  Burling,  of  Natchez,  Miss.  He  was  sent  to 
Mexico  on  a  mission  in  180G.  He  requested  permis- 
sion to  import  some  of  the  Mexican  cotton  seed  from 
the  Viceroy,  a  request  which  was  not  granted,  on  the 
ground  that  it  was  forbidden  by  the  Spanish  Govern- 
ment. But  the  Viceroy  sportively  accorded  his  free 
permission  to  take  home  with  him  as  many  Mexican 
dolls  as  he  might  fancy— a  permission  well  under* 


OP     AGRICULTURE.  C7 

stood  and  freely  accepted.  Mr.  Burling  had  these 
dolls  stuffed  with  cotton  seed.  Many  accidental 
varieties  have  been  introduced  of  late  years,  origin- 
ating in  a  promiscuous  cultivation  of  different  kinds? 
by  which  the  pollen  became  intermixed,  and  the 
different  qualities  assimilated.  Some  new  and  ex- 
cellent varieties  have  thus  been  produced,  which  have 
been  preserved  and  further  improved  by  careful  and 
judicious  selection  of  seed  in  the  field.  Many  spurious 
kinds  have  been  palmed  off  upon  the  planter  from 
time  to  time.  Many  of  them  have  had  their  day, 
whilst  others  deservedly  maintain  the  high  estima- 
tion to  which  their  superior  qualities  entitle  them. 


CHAP TEE    X, 

THE  DISEASES  OF  THE  COTTON  PLANT, 
RUST. 

Many  of  the  most  experienced  planters  attribute 
this  disease  to  tlie  mineral  properties  of  the  soil.  The 
leaves,  when  first  attacked,  appear  rather  more  yellow 
than  the  rest,  with  red  spots  on  the  surface.  These 
leaves  turn  more  yellow  and  red  every  day,  until  the 
plant  assumes  a  bright  red  color;  when,  finally,  the 
whole  of  the  foliage  turns  to  a  brown  color  and  falls 
to  the  earth.  When  the  disease  attacks  the  bolls,  it 
assumes  a  different  appearance,  and  is  termed  the 
"red"  or  "black"  rust,  as  the  case  may  be.  The 
cotton,  in  such  bolls  as  have  been  attacked  by  the 
black  rust,  and  the  bolls  themselves,  shrivel  up  and 


G8  WALL'S    MANUAL 

turn  dark  colored,  arc  mildewed  and  totally  valueless. 
There  arc  some  planters  who  attribute  this  disease 
solely  to  atmospheric  changes,  and  not  to  the  soil. 
The  author,  from  long  study  and  reflection,  is  of  the 
opinion  that  both  theories  are  right;  the  soil  stands 
the  rust,  and  the  atmosphere  continues  it.  Mr.  David 
Dixon,  of  Georgia,  applies  with  his  fertilizers  one 
hundred  pounds  of  salt  to  the  acre,  and  affirms  that 
he  is  now  never  troubled  wTith  the  rust. 

s  o  R  E  -  s  ii  i  N  . 

The  sore-shin  is  sometimes  occasioned  by  a  careless 
stroke  of  the  hoe,  scraping  the  outer  bark  from  the 
stem,  while  the  plant  is  yet  growing  and  tender. 
Although  the  vigor  of  the  plant  may  afterwards  pro- 
duce new  bark  from  the  the  sides  of  the  wound,  and 
the  injury  heal  up,  leaving  only  a  scar,  yet  the  stem 
eventually  becomes  so  weak,  as  frequently  to  break 
off  at  or  above  the  place  first  wounded.  The  prevent- 
ive of  this  kind  of  sore-shin  is  careful  hoeino-.  There 

O 

is  another  kind  of  sore-shin  occasioned,  as  some  assert, 
by  planting  too  early.  The  cold,  cutting  winds  blight 
the  young  plant  wThere  it  comes  in  contact  with  the 
ground.  The  plant-louse,  which  prevail  most  in  such 
seasons,  doubtless  contribute  to  the  injury. 

THE    ROT. 

Mr.  Troup,  in  the  American  Farmer,  describes  its 
appearance  with  great  accuracy.  lie  says  :  '•'  The 
first  indication  is  seen  in  a  small  circular  spot  outside 
of  the  boll,  exhibiting  a  darker  green  than  the  other 
parts  ;  as  if  a  globule  of  water  had  been  dropped  upon 
it,  and  been  absorbed.  Many  of  these  arc  frequently 
seen  at  the  same  time  on  the  same  boll.  They  spread 


0  V    A  O  11 1 '  C  U  L  T  DUE,  GO 

themselves  faster,  or  slower,  as  if  induced  either  by 
the  atmosphere  or  condition  of  the  plant,  changing 
color  as  they  progress,  until  they  assume  a  dark 
brown,  approaching  to  black,  and  until  the  Avhole  ex- 
terior is  in  like  manner  affected.  When  the  disease 
penetrates  to  the  centre  of  the  boll,  fermentation  is 
universal,  and  is  seen  in  a  frothy,  white  liquid  thrown 
out  on  the  surface  of  the  boll,  Putrifaction  follows, 
and  the  destruction  of  the  seed  and  lint  thereby  be- 
comes complete,"  It  is  very  difficult  to  find  out  the 
true-cause  for  this  disease,  as  it  sometimes  appears  in 
dry  as  well  as  wet  years,  although  it  is  generally 
more  destructive  during  rainy  seasons.  The  young 
bolls  are  often  rotted  as  well  as  the  half  matured  and 
old,  so  that  the  age  of  the  fruit  does  not  appear  to 
have  anything  to  do  writh  it,  As  to  the  theory  of  a 
defect  in  the  soil,  it  has  been  stated  by  some  planters 
that  barn-yard  manure  will  often  produce  it ;  but  if 
this  is  the  case,  it  is  somewhat  singular  that  one 
plant  may  be  badly  affected  by  the  rot,  while  others 
on  each  side  are  perfectly  healthy  and  uninjured. 
This  fact  appears  to  show  that  a  great  deal  depends 
upon  the  constitution  of  the  plant  itself,  which  may 
have  inherited  the  disease  from  its  parent,  and  a 
choice  of  good  mature  seed,  from  strong,  healthy 
plants,  may  remedy  the  disease.  The  fungoid  growth 
found  on  the  rotted  boll  may,  perhaps,  be  regarded 
more  as  the  result  than  the  cause  of  the  rot.  There 
are  three  glands  on  the  inside  of  the  outer  calyn,  at 
the  bottom  of  the  boll,  and  three  on  the  outside  be- 
tween the  rufflle  and  stalk,  which  secrete  and  give 
out  a  sweet  substance,  which  ants,  bees,  wasps  and 
plant- bugs  avail  themselves  of  as  food.  I  have  seen 


TO  WALL'S    MANUAL 

young  bolls,  apparently  healthy,  suddenly  drop  from 
the  plant,  and  on  being  carefully  cut  open,  showed  a 
Wound  Avhich  had  been  pierced  by  the  trunk  of  some 
insect,  in  one  of  these  glands,  and  a  watery  rot  had 
commenced  where  the  boll  had  been  stung.  It  was 
evident  that  this  rot  had  been  caused  by  the  pierce?"  of 
some  insect, 

BLIGHT. 

It  is  frequently  observed  that  fine  and  apparently 
healthy  cotton  plants,  full  of  forms  and  bolls,  are 
suddenly  dying  in  certain  spots,  the  leaves  wither, 
droop,  and  finally  fall  off,  and  the  plant  dies.  On 
taking  the  plant  up  no  worm,  insect  or  external  injury 
could  be  observed.  On  splitting  the  stem  open,  the 
pith  in  the  heart  had  turned  black,  and  the  sap  in 
the  sap  vessels  seemed  dried  up.  The  only  conclu- 
sion that  could  be  drawn  was,  that  some  of  the  roots 
had  penetrated  into  a  soil  totally  unfitted  for  the  life 
of  the  plant.  What  renders  this  disease  more  singu- 
lar is  the  fact  that  other  cotton  plants  were  growing 
most  luxuriantly  within  one  or  two  feet,  and  even  in 
the  same  hill  with  the  blighted  plant.  It  is  a  fact 
worthy  of  observation  that  this  disease  occurs  on 
the  very  best  land,  and  to  a  greater  degree  on  land 
which  has  been  overflowed  in  the  spring,  or  where 
water  seeps  out  at  the  foot  of  hills. 

Most  of  the  foregoing  facts  in  relation  to  the  dis- 
eases of  cotton  were  condensed  from  Glover's  report. 


LTOns:.  71 

CHAPTER    XI. 

INSECTS     BENEFICIAL    AND    INJURIOUS    TO    THE    COTTON 
PLANT, 

The  following  account  of  the  insects  frequenting 
the  cotton  plant,  is  from  the  Report  of  Townsend 
Glover,  a  practical  entomologist,  sent  out  by  the 
United  States  Government  for  the  purpose  of  study- 
ing their  habits  and  nature.  Mr.  Glover  spent  several 
years  in  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi  and 
Louisiana,  devoting  his  whole  time  to  the  subject. 

INSECTS  FREQUENTING  THE  COTTON  PLANT, 

The  cotton  plant  furnishes  food  for  numerous 
insects,  some  of  which  feed  exclusively  on  the  leaf, 
some  on  the  flower,  while  others  destroy  the  young 
buds  and  bolls.  It  is  my  purpose  to  describe  these 
insects,  not  in  the  order  of  their  classification  by 
natural  families,  but  according  to  the  part  of  the 
plant  to  which  their  ravages  are  chiefly  confined, 
Thus,  by  referring  to  the  parts  injured,  one  can  easily 
recognize  the  insect,  or  its  larva.  Many  of  these 
insects  at  first  appear  in  small  numbers,  and  only  do 
much  injury  in  their  second  and  third  generations. 
For  instance,  a  female  boll-worm  will  produce  five 
hundred  eggs;  when  hatched,  one-half  females,  'the 
other  half  males.  The  next  generation,  if  the  increase 
be  in  the  same  ratio,  will  be  125,000  caterpillars  or 
moths — and  this  accomplished  in  the  space  of  three 
or  four  weeks.  It  will,  therefore,  be  perceived  that 
their  destruction  depends  upon  prompt  and  timely 
action.  Planters  may  materially  aid  in  the  work 
designed  for  their  mutual  benefit,  by  minutely  observ- 


72 

ing  the  habits  and  nature  of  these  pests  of  the  field^ 
and  devising  means  for  their  destruction. 

Insects  injurious  to  cotton  consist  of  those  destructive 
to  the  general  crops,  such  as  the  boll-- worm,  cotton - 
caterpillar,  and  some  others ;  and  those  which  do 
comparatively  little  injury,  such  as  "the  span -worm, 
and  others  which  feed  upon  petals  and  pollen  of  the 
flowers.  There  are  also  many  insects  found  in  cotton 
fields  which  do  110  damage  whatever  to  the  plant, 
but  merely  feed  upon  the  grass  and  weeds  growing 
between  the  rows* 

A  class  of  insects  which  is  highly  beneficial,  compre* 
hcnds  the  larva  of  the  lady- bird,  the  ichneumon  of 
flies,  and  many  others,  that  are  ever  on  the  search 
for  living  victims  amongst  the  noxious  tribes,  and 
which  serve  to  keep  the  members  of  the  latter  within 
proper  bounds. 

Several  methods  for  destroying  insects  are  employed, 
one  of  which — the  most  eifective,  tried  in  Florida — is 
the  use  of  fire  or  burning  torches*  Myriads  of  noc- 
turnal moths  are  attracted  by  the  lights,  burn  their 
wings  as  they  hover  around,  arid  are  either  destroyed 
at  once,  or  disabled  from  flying  about  to  deposit  their 
eggs  in  distant  parts  of  the  field.  Another  plan, 
which  it  is  hoped  will,  upon  experiment,  prove 
applicable  to  the  enemies  of  the  cotton  plant,  has 
been  lately  reported  as  a  means  of  destroying  the 
"tobacco  fly  "  in  Florida.  This  fly  is  in  the  habit  of 
feeding  upon  the  nectar  or  honey  contained  in  flowers, 
They  are  particularly  fond  of  the  Jamestown  weed, 
A  preparation  of  one  pint  of  water,  a  gill  of  molasses 
or  honey,  and  an  ounce  of  cobalt.  This  mixture  is 
put  in  a  bottle,  a  quill  inserted  in  the  cork.  Let  fall  a 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  73 

few  drops  of  this  mixture  into  the  cup  of  the  flower, 
about  sunset.     It  is  certain  to  destroy  the  moths. 

But,  while  planters  are  looking  for  so  many  arti- 
ficial means  to  destroy  insects,  they  are  apt  to  over- 
look the  great  daily  benefits  derived  from  other 
agents,  which  kind  nature  has  provided  to  check  their 
increase.  These  agents  are  the  birds,  which  constantly 
destroy  insects  in  their  varied  forms — larva,  pupa,  or 
perfect  insect.  Mocking-birds  and  bee  martins  catch 
and  destroy  the  boll- worm  moth  with  great  avidity. 
If  the  fields  were  plowed  in  the  fall,  many  insects 
and  chrysalides  are  turned  to  the  top  of  the  furrow 
slice',  and  either  fall  a  prey  to  the  ever- busy  bird,  or 
perish  from  frost  and  cold, 

INSECTS    WHICH   TEED    UPON   THE    STALK, 

The  Cut  Wo.rm. —  The  cotton  cut  worm  is  similar  in 
its  habits  and  appearance  to  many  of  the  cut  worms 
of  the  gardens  ;  they  penetrate  the  earth  close  to  the 
plant,  and  at  night  emerge  from  their  retreats  to 
gnaw  off  the  plant  at  or  near  the  ground.  A  gen- 
tleman in  Alabama,  who  had  been  troubled  with  this 
pest,  informed  the  author  that  a  particular  spot  of 
four  or  five  acres,  which  had  been  overflowed  in  the 
spring,  had  been  litterally  thronging  with  the  cut 
worm,  threatening  the  loss  of  his  whole  crop.  ,  He 
turned  into  the  enclosure  twenty  or  thirty  young- 
pigs,  which  soon  discovered  the  worms,  rooted  them 
up  in  vast  numbers,  and  fattened  on  this  singular 
diet.  The  cotton  was  not  injured,  as  the  pigs  were 
too  ynoung  to  root  deep  enough  to  destroy  the  plants. 
The  pigs  remained  where  the  worms  were  to  be 
found,  never  troubling  any  other  portion  of  the  field. 
4 


74  WALL'S    MANUAL 

One  bushel  of  salt  to  the  acre  is  a  .remedy  for  cut 
worm,  and  a  good  fertilizer,  when  mixed ;  one  hun- 
dred pounds  Peruvian  guano,  one  hundred  pounds  of 
superphosphate  of  lime  to  the  acre. 

INSECTS    FOUND    ON    THE   LEAF. 

The  Cotton  Louse  (Aphis'). — When  the  cotton  plant 
is  young  and  tender  it  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  the 
aphis  or  cotton  louse,  which,  by  means  of  its  piercers, 
penetrates  the  outer  coating  of  the  leaf,  and  sucks 
the  sap  from  the  wound.  The  under  part  of  the 
leaves  or  young  shoots  are  the  places  mostly  selected, 
and  the  constant  punctures  and  drainage  of  sap  en- 
feebles the  plant,  causing  the  leaf  to  curl  up,  turn 
yellow  and  fall  to  the  ground.  The  young  lice  are 
extremely  minute,  and  of  a  greenish  color ;  but  when 
they  become  older,  they  are  about  one -tenth  of  an 
inch  in  length,  and  often  a  very  dark  green  ;  and,  in 
some  instances,  almost  black.  The  female  produces 
her  young  alive  throughout  the  summer,  when  she 
may  often  be  seen  surrounded  by  her  numerous  pro- 
geny, sucking  the  juices  from  the  leaf,  and  still  pro- 
ducing young.  Both  males  and  females  are  said  to 
possess  wings  at  certain  seasons,  but  the  females  and 
young,  in  summer,  appear  to  be  wingless.  The  end 
of  the  abdomen  of  both  sexes  is  provided  with  two 
slender  tubes,  rising  like  horns  from  the  back,  from 
which  exudes  the  "  honey  dew,"  seen  sticking  to  the 
leaves,  and  which  forms  the  favorite  food  of  myr- 
iads of  ants  and  other  insects.  The  principal  in- 
sects which  destroy  the  lice  are  the  lady  bug,  the 
lace  fly  and  the  syaphus,  all  of  which  wage  incessant 
war  upon  them,  and  devour  all  they  .iind.  Another 


•Jfc. 


Cotton  Caterpillar. 


OF    AGRICULTURE,  75 

fly,  the  ichmiemon,  lays  an  egg  in  the  body  of  the 
louse,  which,  hatching  into  a  grub,  devours  the  in- 
side of  the  still  living  insect,  until  it  eventually  dies, 
clinging  to  the  leaf  even  in  death,  and  the  fly  makes 
its  appearance  from  the  old  skin  of  the  aphis,  Hot 
sunshine  and  the  insects  above  mentioned  are  the 
only  remedies  as  yet  discovered  for  this  pest  of  the 
cotton  field,  Dry  plaster,  or  sulphate  of  lime,  with 
ashes  finely  ground,  like  flour,  dusted  upon  the  plants 
on  a  damp  day,  would  destroy  many  of  them,  and 
perhaps  coat  the  leaf  over  so  as  to  keep  others  from 
piercing  it, 

THE    COTTON     CATERPILLAR. 

The  leaves  of  the  cotton  plant  are  sometimes  en- 
tirely devoured  by  wThat  is  known  by  the  planters  as 
the  "  cotton  caterpillar,  or  cotton  army  worm,"  It 
does  not  appear  every  year  in  immense  numbers,  but 
at  uncertain  intervals,  The  perfect  insect  or  moth, 
when  at  rest,  is  of  a  triangular'  shape,  the  head  form- 
ing one,  and  the  extremities  of  the  wings  the  other 
two  angles,  The  color  of  the  upper  wings  is  reddish 
gray,  a  dark  spot  with  a  whitish  center  appearing  in 
the  middle  of  each,  The  under  wings  are  of  a  dark 
reddish  gray,  The  moth  of  this  caterpillar  loses 

uch  of  its  grayish  cast  when  it  becomes  older,  and 

e  down  has  been  rubbed  from  the  wings,  when  it 
assumes  more  of  a  reddish  tinge, 

The  natural  or  perfect  moths  are  easily  attracted 
by  lights,  and  may  be  found  resting  in  the  day 
time  <jn  the  walls  or  ceilings  of  rooms,  attracted 
there,  no  doubt,  by  the  lights  in  the  room  the  evening 
before-.  If  not  molested)  they  will  remain  motionless 


76  W  A  L  L  '  g     M  A  N  U  A  L 

during  the  day  j  but  as  night  approaches,  they  fly  off 
with  much  vigor  and  strength.  When  in  the  open 
air,  they  may  be  found  among  and  under  the  leaves 
of  the  cotton  plant,  as  well  as  those  of  the  weeds 
which  surround  the  field,  The  eggs  are  deposited 
principally  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  and  often 
upon  the  outer  calyx  of  the  boll  j  I  have  even  found 
them,  when  very  numerous,  upon  the  stalk  itself 
Wherever  these  caterpillars  were  very  abundant,  I 
counted  from  ten  to  fifteen  eggs  on  a  single  leaf, 
which  are  very  small  and  difficult  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  leaf,  on  account  of  their  green  color.  In 
shape,  the  eggs  are  round  and  flat,  and,  when 
examined  under  a  microscope,  appear  furrowed  or 
ribbed.  The  color  of  the  eggs  when  first  deposited, 
is  of  a  beautiful  sea-green,  They  are  closely  attached 
to  the  leaf.  There  is  a  great  difference  between  the 
eggs  of  the  "caterpillar  moth"  and  the  "boll-worm 
moth0 — the  first  being,  as  before  stated,  round  and 
flattened  in  shape,  and  green  in  colors;  whereas,  those 
of  the  boll- worm  moth  are  not  flat,  but  more  of  an 
oval  shape,  and  of  a  dirty,  yellowish  color* 

The  first  brood  of  caterpillars  in  August  were  all 
of  a  green  color,  wTith  narrow,  longitudinal  light 
stripes  along  each  side  of  their  bodies,  and  two 
broader  light,  yellowish  stripes  along  each  side  of 
their  backs,  down  the  center  of  each  of  which  was  a 
distinct,  narrow  light-  colored  line.  Each  of  the  broader 
bands  is  marked  with  two  black  spots  on  each 
segment ;  and  on  each  segment  of  the  sides  there 
were  three  or  more  dark  dots,  The  head  is  yellowish 
green,  spotted  with  black.  The  caterpillars  of  the 
second  and  third  generations,  all  of  much  darker 


OF    AGRICULTURE.  77 

color  than  those  of  the  first.  These  insects  appear 
to  multiply  to  the  greatest  extent  in  damp,  cloudy 
weather.  When  the  older  caterpillars  are  touched, 
they  have  a  habit  of  springing  to  a  distance  of  several 
times  their  length.  In  fifteen  or  twenty  days  after 
the  caterpillar  attains  its  full  size,  it  ceases  to  feed. 
It  then  doubles  down  the  edge  of  the  leaf,  and  fastens 
it  with  its  own  silk  to  the  main  part  of  the  same 
leaf,  forming  thereby  a  loosely  spun  cocoon.  In  this, 
it  transforms  itself  into  a  chrysalis,  which,  at  first 
green,  but  a  short  time  after  changes  to  a  chesnut- 
brown  or  almost  black  color.  These  worms  appear 
in  successive  broods,  and  they  accomplish  their  cycle 
of  transformation  in  from  twenty- one  to  twenty- six 
days,  according  to  the  season.  A  season  of  moisture 
and  heat  is  the  most  favorable  for  their  production. 
Very  dry,  hot  iveather,  in  some  degree  checks  then- 
ravages. 

Among  the  many  remedies  recommended  for  this 
moth,  fires  and  lights  in  the  fields  have  been  spoken 
of  as  attracting  and  destroying  the  miller.  If  the 
fence  corners  were  cleared  up  and  burned,  and  the 
woods  and  ranges  around  each  plantation  were 
burned  over,  as  in  former  times,  I  have  no  doubt 
a  vast  number  of  these  insects  would  be  destroyed, 

if  not  entirely  exterminated. 

% 

THE    BOLL-  WORM. 

The  egg  producing  the  boll- worm  is  deposited 
by  a  yellowish  colored  moth,  during  the  warm 
evenings  in  summer  and  fall.  This  moth  may  be 
seen  hovering  over  the  tops  of  the  cotton  blooms  from 
about  an  hour  before  until  an  hour  after  sunset.  It 


78  WALL'S   MANUAL 

flits  from  flower  to  flower,  depositing  a  single  egg  on 
each,  which  hatches  in  three  or  four  days,  and  the 
little  worm  immediately  eats  its  way  into  the  center 
of  the  enclosed  bloom,  or  boll,  and,  devouring  the 
interior,  escapes  to  a  leaf,  where  it  soon  casts  its  skin. 
The  ruined  bloom,  in  the  meantime,  "  flares  "  open 
and  falls  to  the  ground ;  and  the  young  worm  then 
attacks  another  bloom  or  boll,  in  the  same  manner ; 
and  at  length,  as  it  acquires  size  and  strength,  it  is 
able  to  bore  into  the  nearly  natural  bolls,  which 
become  entirely  destroyed  by  its  punctures;  for,  at 
this  period,  if  the  interior  is  not  all  devoured,  the 
rain  penetrates  the  boll,  and  the  lint  becomes  rotten 
and  useless. 

The  worm,  after  attaining  full  size,  descends  into 
the  earth,  when  it  makes  a  silky  cocoon,  interwoven 
with  particles  of  gravel  and  earth,  in  which  it 
changes  into  'a  bright,  chesnut-brown  chrysalis, 
Those  which  enter  the  ground  in  September  and 
October  reappear  as  perfect  moths  by  the  end  of 
November. 

Whenever  a  young  bloom  is  seen  in  the  field  with 
the  calyx  "flared"  open,  it  may  safely  be  concluded 
that  it  has  been  attacked  by  the  young  boll- worm? 
and  will  soon  perish  and  fall  to  the  ground.  If  the 
fallen  blooms  are  closely  examined  they  will  mostly 
be  found  to  have  been  pierced  by  the  worm.  ' 

There  is  a  striking  similarity  between  this  worm 
and  the  corn  worm,  in  appearance,  food,  and  habits, 
both  in  the  caterpillar  and  perfect  state.  This  leads 
to  the  supposition  that  the  boll- worm  may  be  the 
young  of  the  corn-moth,  and  the  eggs  are  deposited 
on  the  young  bolls,  as  the  nearest  substitute  for  green 


OP    AGRICULTURE.  79 

corn,  and  placed  upon  thorn  only  when  the  corn  has 
become  too  old  for  their  food.  Col,  B.  A.  Sorsby,  of 
Columbus,  Ga.,  has  bred  both  insects,  and  declares 
them  to  be  the  same ;  and  moreover,  when,  according 
to  his  advice,  the  corn  was  carefully  wormed,  on 
three  plantations,  the  boll- worms  did  not  make  their 
appearance  that  season  on  the  cotton ;  although 
on  neighboring  plantations  they  committed  great 
ravages. 

The  worms  vary  much  in  coloring  and  marking, 
some  being  brown,  while  others  are  almost  green  ; 
all  are  more  or  less  spotted  with  black,  and  slightly 
covered  with  short  hair.  These  variations  in  color, 
perhaps,  may  be  caused  by  the  food  of  the  cater- 
pillar, which  appears  in  every  shade  between  the 
two.  The  chrysalis  is  of  a  bright  chesnut- brown, 
and  the  moths  of  a  tawny  yellowish  color;  the  upper 
wings  are  yellowish  in  some  specimens,  with  a  shade 
of  green,  but  in  others,  red.  There  is  an  irregular 
dark  band  running  across  the  wing,  about  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  from  the  margin,  and  a  crescent- shaped 
mark  near  the  center  of  the  wing.  Several  dark 
spots,  enclosing  a  white  spot,  are  also  discerned  on 
the  margin.  The  under  wings  are  lighter  colored, 
with  a  broad  black  border  on  the  margin,  and  also 
veined  distinctly  with  the  same  color. 

The  destruction  of  these  moths  has  been  sought 
by  various  expedients.  Lighted  fires  in  various 
parts  of  the  cotton  field,  at  the  season  when  the 
insects  first  make  their  appearance,  have  been 
attended  with  great  benefit;  millions,  attracted  by 
the  light,  perish  in  the  flames ;  and  if  the  first  brood 
of  females  be  thus  destroyed,  their  numbers  must  be 


80  W  A  L  L  '  S     M  A  N  U  A  L 

thus  greatl}T  diminished.  Some  successful  experi- 
ments in  killing  these  rnoths  with  molasses  and 
vinegar,  were  made  by  Col.  Sorsby,  the  details  of 
which  follow  in  his  own  words :  "  We  procured 
eighteen  common- size  dinner  plates,  into  which  we 
put  a  half  a  gill  of  vinegar  and  molasses,  previously 
prepared,  in  the  proportion  of  four  parts  vinegar  to 
one  of  molasses.  These  plates  were  set  on  stakes 
driven  in  the  ground  in  different  parts  of  the  cotton 
field,  with  a  six-inch  square  board  tacked  on  top  to 
receive  the  plate;  each  plate  occupying  an  area  of 
about  three  acres,  and  in  height  a  little  above  the 
cotton  plants.  These  arrangements  were  made  in 
the  evening,  soon  after  the  flies  made  their  appear- 
ance. When  examined  the  next  morning,  we  found 
from  eighteen  to  thirty- five  flies  to  each  plate. 
Yvre  continued  the  experiment  for  five  or  six  days, 
extending  the  plates  over  the  entire  field,  each 
day's  success  decreasing,  until  the  number  was 
reduced  to  two  or  three  only  to  the  plate,  when 
it  was  abandoned  as  not  being  longer  worthy  of 
the  trouble.  The  crop  was  but  little  injured  by 
the  boll-worm.  The  flies  were  caught,  in  their 
eagerness  to  feed  upon  the  mixture,  by  alighting  in 
it,  when  they  were  unable,  from  its  adhesive  nature, 
to  make  their  escape.  The  plates  should  be  visited 
every  evening,  the  insects  taken  out,  and  the  plates 
replenished  with  the  mixture,  as  the  moths  feed  only 
at  night."  AVc  have  since  tried  the  experiment, 
with  results  equally  satisfactory. 

INSECTS     BENEFICIAL     TO     COTTON. 

Spiders. — Spiders  in  the  cotton  or  grain  fields  are 
decidedly   beneficial,    as   they   wage   perpetual    war 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  81 

against  other  insects,  and  are  incessantly  on  the 
watch  to  catch  and  destroy  all  which  happen  to  be- 
come entangled  in  their  webs. 

The  Carolina  Tiger  Beetle. — This  beetle  belongs  to 
Uie  family,  (cicindeledse),  otherwise  called  "tiger 
beetles,"  from  their  savage  propensities,  and  the 
beautiful  spots  and  stripes  with  which  their  metallic 
wing-cases  are  adorned.  These  beetles  are  always 
hunting  about  the  ground  in  search  of  insect  food. 
A  smaller  and  darker  species  especially  delight  in 
the  glare  of  the  sun,  and,  when  disturbed,  flies  only 
a  short  distance,  alighting  with  its  head  directed  to- 
wards the  object  which  excited  its  alarm.  The  Car- 
olina tiger  beetle  is  about  seven- tenths  of  an  inch  in 
length,  of  a  most  beautiful  metallic  blue,  violet  and 
green ,  and  when  placed  in  certain  positions,  it  as- 
sumes the  lustre  of  bronze  or  gold.  It  may  also  be 
known  by  a  yellowish  curved  spot  on  the  extremity 
of  each  wing-case.  It  is  seen  more  frequently  in  the 
cotton  fields  during  cloudy  weather,  or  toward  even- 
ing, than  in  the  fervid  mid- day  sun. 

The  Predatory  Beetle. — A  beetle  belonging  to  the 
genus  harpahiSj  is  very  beneficial  to  the  cotton  planter, 
inasmuch  as  its  food  consists  principally  of  other 
insects,  and  of  dead  putrescent  substances.  Numbers 
of  them  may  be  seen  running  about  the  surface  of 
the  ground  in  search  of  food.  The  formation  of  their 
jaws  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  a  predatory  life ;  as  they 
are  very  strong  and  hooked  at  the  extremity,  they 
are  enabled  to  seize  and  hold  fast  any  soft- bodied 
inject.  These  beetles  destroy  multitudes  of  insects 
in  the  larva,  pupa  and  perfect  state. 

The  Devil's  Coach-Horse. — This  insect  generally 
4* 


82'  W  A  L  L  r  S     M  A  KT  U  A  L 

abounds  in  the  Southern  States,  and  is  very  useful  in 
destnrving  caterpillars  -which  swarm  on  the  shade 
trees.  When  young,  they  have  abdomens  of  a  bright 
'fed  color,  with  dark  or  black  spots  on  their  backs. 
The  head  and  throat  are  black.  When  they  shed 
their  skins,  the}"  are  greyish  in  color,  and  have  only 
the  rudiments  of  wings.  It  is  only  in  the  last  stage 
that  they  require  perfect  wings,  when  they  fly  with 
great  vigor.  The  perfect  insect  measures  about  sin 
Inch  and  a  quarter  in  length.  It  destroys  multitudes 
of  noxious  insects,  in  every  stage  of  their  growth  y 
and  is  therefore  highly  beneficial.  A  small  specimen 
experimented  with,  was  placed  in  a  box  with  ten 
caterpillars,  all  of  which  it  destroyed  in  the  space  of 
five  hours. 

The  Ichneumon  Fly. — An  ichneumon  fly  is  found  in 
the  cotton  fields  of  the  South,  busily  employed  in  the 
search  of  some  caterpillar,  in  the  body  of  which  to 
deposit  its  eggs,  as  is  generally  the  habit  of  this  class 
of  flies.  The  eggs  being  hatched  within  the  cater- 
pillar, the  larva  devour  the  fatty  substance,  carefully 
avoiding  all  the  vital  parts,  until  they  are  fully 
grown,  the  caterpillar,  in  the  mean  time,  changed  into 
a  chrysalis,  with  the  devouring  Iarva3  in  its  interior,, 
the  life  of  the  unresisting  victim  is  destroyed,  and 
the  grubs  change  into  pupa?  and  emerge  from  the 
chrysalis  skin  perfect  ichneumon  flies,  to  deposit  their 
eggs  in  turn  in  otlier  caterpillars.  These  insects  are 
generally  seen  running  about  plants  infested  with 
caterpillars  or  worms,  continually  jerking  their  wings 
and  anxiously  searching  every  cranny  and  crevice  in 
quest  of. a  worm,  in  which  to  form  the  nest  and  pro- 
vide food  for  their  young.  The  ichneumon  -fly  is 


per/eft  fly. 


'*T^NJ 


magnified 

' 


Sy/pftux.1 

fM/>u  a/sr 
nujfsizc         MM*/'/ 


j 


OP     AGRICULTURE.  83 

about  a  half  an  inch  in  length.  The  body  of  the 
female  is  black  and  marked  witli'  seven  light-colored, 
yellowish,  narrow  rings  around  it;  the  head  is  black, 
and  the  eyes  brown;  the  wings  transparent,  of  a 
rather  yellowish  tinge,  veined,  with  black,  and  having 
a  distinct  black  mark  on  the  outer  margin  of  the 
upper  pair.  The  male  presents  much  the  same  ap- 
pearance as  the  female,  but  is  more  slender  in  form. 

The  Smaller  Ichneumon  Fly. — This  ichneumon  fly  is 
not  quite  the  twentieth  of  an  inch  in  length.  The 
head  and  throat  black,  and  the  legs  and  abdomen  of 
a  yellowish  color.  Although  it  is  so  extremely  small 
as  to  be  unobserved,  it  is  constantly  engaged  in  exter- 
minating the  cotton  lice,  myriads  of  which  they 
destroy  by  preying  upon  their  vitals.  The  female  fly 
lays  a  single  egg  in  the  body  of  each  louse,  which, 
when  hatched,  becomes  a  grub.  This  grub  destroys 
the  interior  substance  of  the  louse,  leaving  only  the 
grey  and  bloated  skin  clinging  to  the  leaf;  then  the 
grub  remains  until  it  changes  to  a  perfect  fly,  when 
it  emerges  from  a  hole  gnawed  through  the  back, 
and  issues  forth,  furnished  with  four  transparent 
wings,  to  recommence  the  beneficial  work  of  laying 
more  eggs  in  the  colonies  of  lice  on  the  neighboring 
plants.  The  number  of  lice  destroyed  in  this  way 
can  be  appreciated  by  observing  the  multitude  of 
empty  skins,  having  a  hole  in  the  back  through  which 
the  fly  escaped. 

The  Syrphus. — The  young  of  the  syrphus  are  found 
wherever  plant  lice  abound,  and  present  the  appear ^ 
ance  of  small,  yellowish,  white,  naked  maggots,  or 
grubs,  of  about  a  fifth  of  an  inch  in  length.  Their 
color  is  brown,  with  six  distinct  yellow  spots  on  the 


84  WALL'S    MANUAL 

first  three  segments  of  the  body,  and  the  sides  ai'O 
also  marked  on  the  margin  with  yellow  j  the  body  is 
somewhat  hairy.  The  head  is  armed  with  powerful 
jaws,  and  gradually  tapers  to  a  point,  while  the  tail 
terminates  abruptly,  as  if  cut  off.  The  parent  fly 
deposits  her  eggs  amongst  the  lice  in  order  to  insure 
a  supply  of  food  to  each  grub.  These  eggs  are  soon 
hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  the  young  grub 
immediately  commences  crawling  about  the  leaf. 
Being  blind,  it  incessantly  gropes  and  feels  around  on 
either  side  in  search  of  plant  lice,  its  natural  food. 
When  ready  to  change,  the  "syrphus"  grub  fastens 
itself  to  a  leaf  or  stalk  by  means  of  a  glutinous  secre- 
tion from  its  own  body,  and  the  outer  skin  contract- 
ing into  a  pear-shaped  case  soon  hardens  by  expo- 
sure to  the  air,  and  the  pupa  is  formed  inside.  After 
a  few  days,  during  the  heat  of  summer,  the  perfect 
fly  emerges  from  a  hole  at  the  blunt  end  of  the  case, 
to  lay  eggs  amongst  other  colonies  of  lice  on  neigh- 
boring plants.  The  perfect  fly  is  about  seven- tenths 
of  an  inch  across  the  wings,  which  are  two  in  num- 
ber and  transparent.  The  body  is,  generally,  more  or 
less  banded  brown,  or  black  and  yellow,  and  appears 
like  that  ofa  small  wasp.  This  fly  has  a  peculiar 
habit  of  hovering  on  the  wing,  apparently  without 
motion  or  exertion,  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  near 
or  over  flowers.  These  insects  are  of  essential  aid  to 
farmers  and  planters,  as  their  young  materially 
diminishes  the  numbers  of  lice  which  infest  vegeta- 
tion. 

The  Lady  Bird. — The  lady  bird  is  a  most  valuable 
aid  to  the  cotton  planter,  as  it  destroys  the  cotton 
lice  by  millions,  and  is  most  plentiful,  where  they 


OF    AGRICULTURE,  85 

abound,  always  being  busy  at  the  work  of  destruc- 
tion, thus  proving  itself  one  of  the  most  beneficial  of 
insects  to  the  planter,  The  larva  of  the  lady  bird  is 
a  small,  blueish,  black,  alligator-looking  insect,  of 
about  one- fourth  of  an  inch  in  length,  spotted  with  a 
few  orange  marks  on  the  sides  and  back.  Whenever 
one  of  them  is  seen  among  a  colony  of  lice,  the  planter 
may  safely  calculate  that  in  a  few  days  the  number 
of  the  lice  will  be  greatly  diminished.  When  about 
to  change  into  the  pupa  state,  it  fastens  itself  to  the 
tail  of  a  leaf,  the  skin  of  the  back  splitting  open,  a 
small,  hump- back  black  and  orange  colored  pupa 
makes  its  appearance.  After  remaining  in  this  state 
a  few  days,  this  skin  again  splits,  and  a  perfect  lady 
bird  emerges,  furnished  at  first  with  soft  wings, 
which  afterwards  harden  and  serve  to  transport  it 
to  distant  colonies  of  plant  lice,  in  the  midst  of  which 
the  eggs  are  again  deposited,  to  form  new  broods  for 
the  destruction  of  the  planter's  greatest  pest.  The 
perfect  lady  bird  also  destroys  the  lice,  but  not  in 
such  numbers  as  their  larvae.  Many  planters  imagine 
that  these  lady  birds  are,  in  some  mysterious  way, 
connected  with  the  appearance  of  the  cotton  louse, 
or  even  are  the  progenitors  of  the  louse  itself.  This 
erroneous  impression  is  formed  in  consequence  of 
these  insects  being  always  found  at  the  same  time, 
and  abounding  on  plants  having  the' most  cotton  lice. 
I  have  known  planters  to  have  t!  em  destroyed  by 
their  field  hands,  when  and  wherev  r  found,  and  who 
complained  that  their  plants  were  still  destroyed. 
This  result  was  only  to  be  expect  d,  as  they  had 
killed  the  natural  enemy  to  the  louse,  ind  suffered  the 
pests  themselves  to  breed  in  peace  and  safety,  There 


86  WALL'S   MANUAL 

is  an  insect  which  measures  nearly  half  an  inch  in 
length,  of  a  yellow  color,  with  twelve  large  and  small 
black  spots  on  the  wing-cases,  and  four  small  black 
spots  on  the  thorax,  which  does  considerable  damage 
to  the  cucumber,  melon  and  squash  vines,  by  devour- 
ing the  leaves,  so  as  sometimes  to  disfigure  and  de- 
stroy the  plants,  which  should  not  be  confounded 
with  the  beneficial  lady  bird.  The  latter  can  easily 
be  distinguished  from  this  destructive  bug,  both  by 
size  and  color,  the  useful  lady  bird  being  only  one- 
sixth  or  one- seventh  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  of  a 
bright  red,  almost  scarlet,  color,  with  black  spots ; 
while  the  other,  as  before  said,  are  yellow,  with  black 
spots,  and  one-half  of  an  inch  in  length. 

The  Lace-  Wing  Fly. — The  larva  of  the  lace- wing 
fly  is  furnished  with  two  long  and  sharp  jaws,  by 
means  of  which  it  seizes  the  cotton-louse,  and,  in  a 
few  minutes,  sucks  out  the  juices,  leaving  merely  the 
white,  dried  skins.  The  eggs  of  this  fly  are  very 
singularly  placed  at  the  end  of  a  thread-like  filament, 
fastened  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf,  and  generally 
near  a  colony  of  lice,  in  clusters  of  a  dozen  or  more 
together,  causing  them  to  appear,  to  the  casual 
observer,  like  a  bunch  of  fungi.  The  eggs  being- 
hatched  in  the  midst  of  the  cotton-lice,  the  young 
larvae  commence  the  work  of  extermination,  seizing 
the  younger  lice  in  their  jaws,  and  holding  them  in 
the  air,  sucking  out  their  juices,  and  finally  throwing 
away  the  empty  skins.  The  Iarva3  of  this  insect  are 
not  quite  one-fifth  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  are 
furnished  with  an  apparatus  at  the  extremity  of 
their  tails,  by  means  of  which  they  are  capable  of 
sticking  to  the  leaf,  even  when  all  their  feet  aro 


OTAGRICULTURE.  87 

detached,  thus  being  guarded  against  accidental  falls 
during  high  winds,  that  might  otherwise  destroy 
them.  When  ready  to  change,  a  thread  is  spun 
from  the  tail,  and  often  forming  a  rough  sort  of 
cob-web,  the  insect  spins  a  semi-transparent  ovid 
cocoon,  from  which  emerges  a  beautiful  bright-green 
fly,  with  two  brilliant  eyes,  which  sparkle  like  gold, 
and  four  transparent  wings,  of  a  genial  cast,  delicately 
veined,  and  netted  with  nerves,  resembling  the  most 
beautiful  lace  work ;  and  hence  the  common  name. 
This  splendid  insect,  however,  emits  a  most  nauseous 
and  fetid  smell,  when  held  in  the  hand. 


C  II  A  P  T  E  E   XII. 

PLANTING,    CULTIVATING,  AND  GATHERING  THE   COTTON 
CROP. 

There  must  ever  be  some  diversity  of  practice  in 
the  details  of  all  agricultural  operations.  The  char- 
acter and  situation  of  the  land,  the  nature  of  the  soil, 
the  variations  of  the  seasons,  will  influence  these 
more  or  less.  The  following  details,  therefore,  are 
only  intended  as  general  directions,  under  the  most 
usual  combination  of  circumstances. 

KIND    OF    SOIL. 

The  first  inquiry  which  presents  itself  is  to  know 
whdt  are  the  peculiarities  of  those  soils  which  suit 
the  growth  and  maturity  of  cotton.  Experience  is 
the  safest  and  most  reliable  test  in  the  settlement  of 


88  WALL'S    MANUAL 

this  question.  It  is  now  gcnerall}"  conceded  that  the 
best  cotton  lands  are  those  which  are  of  deep  and 
soft  mold,  a  sort  of  medium  between  the  sandy  and 
spongy,  and  those  soils  which  are  hard  and  close ; 
soils  which  can  be  penetrated  by  the  warming  rays 
of  the  sun,  and  imbibe  readily  the  stimulating  gases 
of  the  atmosphere,  and  at  the  same  time  allow  the 
excess  of  rain-water  to  settle  so  deep  into  the  earth 
as  to  lie  at  a  harmless  distance  below  the  roots  of  the 
young  plant.  These  are  the  properties  of  soil  needful 
to  the  vigorous  growth  and  early  maturity  of  the 
cotton  plant,  and  the  knowledge  of  this  fact  is  of 
great,  and  we  might  add,  indispensable  importance 
to  its  successful  cultivation.  We  may  not  find  all 
these  essentials  in  the  selection  of  a  farm,  but  by  the 
aid  of  the  plow,  the  spade,  and  the  incorporation  of 
foreign  substances,  we  may  remedy  many  defects 
and  supply  many  of  the  peculiar  demands  of  this 
plant. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil — The  best  and  most  import- 
ant part  of  the  work  in  cotton  making  consists  in  a 
judicious  and  proper  preparation  of  the  soil  for  plant- 
ing. In  the  varied  condition  in  which  lands  are 

O 

found,  and  the  diversity  of  soils,  we  can  only  lay 
down  general  principles,  and  the  results  to  be 
obtained,  and  leave  the  planters  to  the  selection  of 
the  best  means  at  hand  for  their  accomplishment. 
All  lands  for  cotton  ought,  before  the  crop  is  planted, 
to  be  broken  deep,  dose  and  soft ;  and  this  to  be  done 
long  enough  before  planting  to  allow  the  rains  gently 
to  settle  them.  It  is  the  most  common,  and  perhaps 
the  best  plan,  to  prepare  all  lands  intended  for  cotton, 
in  beds  made  by  the  turning-plow;  and  flat  and  wet 


Or     AGRICULTU  ft  E  .  89 

lands,  sometimes  an  additional  elevation  ought  to  be 
given,  by  drawing  up  the  beds  with  a  hoe. 

In  this  work  we  have  often  followed  too  much  the 
example  of  our  neighbor,  and  have  looked  too  little 
to  reason,  in  the  indiscriminate  bedding  and  high 
elevation  of  all  lands.  We  advocate  deep,  soft  beds, 
made  by  thorough  and  close  plowing,  but  cannot 
consent  to  the  necessity  or  benefit  of  elevating  much 
lands  which  are  warm  and  dry,  and  which  arc  not 
subject  to  inundations  from  excessive  rains.  For  the 
convenience  of  culture,  the  young  cotton  plant  should 
stand  on  a  slight  elevation ;  but  when  the  condition 
of  the  land  did  not  require  it,  we  should  not  give  it 
more. — [Colonel  Chambers'  Essay. 

PLANTING. 

The  distance  to  be  given,  is  the  next  question  to 
be  considered.  This  is  a  very  important  subject,  and 
one  upon  which  we  arc  very  dependent  for  success  ; 
and  yet,  it  must  be  varied  very  much  by  circumstances, 
some  of  which  are  often  beyond  our  knowledge  or 
control.  The  general  principles  may  be  stated,  and 
then  the  best  judgment  of  the  planter  must  guide  him 
in  their  application. 

When  the  crop  is  at  maturity,  the  branches  of 
the  plant  ought  slightly  to  interlock  every  way.  It 
would  be  vain  to  attempt  to  be  specific  in  directions, 
which  must  be  varied  always  to  suit  the  varied 
character  of  the  soil. 

The  planting  should  be  in  drills,  chiefly,  because 
af  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  a  good  stand  in  hills. 
These  rows  ought,  ordinarily,  to  be  three  and  a  half 
to  four  feet  apart,  in  the  medium  lands  of  the  country, 


90  w  ALL'  s    M  A  N  u  A  L 

and  tlic  stalks  in  the  drill  should  be  thinned,  so  as  to 
stand  twelve  to  twenty  inches  from  each  other.  The 
width  of  the  rows,  and  the  distance  in  the  drill,  may 
be  increased  upon  better  lands;  arid  in  some  cases,  on 
very  thin  lands,  they  may  be  decreased.  The  rows 
should  be  run  in  such  a  direction  as  to  give  the  plant 
the  greatest  benefit  of  the  sun  from  early  morn  to  its 
setting.  Cotton  is  decidedly  a  sun-plant." 

THE    MODE    OF    PLANTING. 

Here  we  have  many  plans,  all  setting  up  claim  to 
Borne  peculiar  merit.  With  the  preparation  of  the 
land  we  have  indicated,  it  is  not  necessary  to  stop  to 
discuss  the  merits  of  these  modes,  or  seek  to  do  more 
than  to  select  some  one  which  we  know  to  answer 
well.  We,  therefore,  advise  the  use  of  a  small  and 
very  narrow  opener.  This  should  be  run  in  the  center 
of  the  bed,  opening  a  straight  furrow,  of  uniform  size 
and  depth.  In  this  the  seed  should  be  strewed  by  a 
careful  hand,  scattering  them  uniformly  along  the 
furrow,  and  just  thick  enough  to  secure  a  good  stand 
the  whole  length  of  the  row.  These  should  be 
covered  with  an  iron  roller  or  a  good  block,  three  or 
four  inches  thick,  about  twenty  inches  broad,  and 
thirty  inches  long,  beveled  on  the  lower  edge,  and 
notched  in  the  middle,  so  as  to  straddle  the  row.  This 
wooden  coverer,  when  drawn  over  the  row,  covers 
the  seed  nicely,  leaving  a  slight  elevation  to  prevent 
the  settling  of  water,  and  dresses  the  whole  surface 
of  the  bed  neatly  for  the  space  of  twenty  inches. 
Thus,  all  clods  and  obstructions  are  crushed  or 
removed,  and  a  clear  space  is  left,  wide  enough  for 
the  scraper  in  the  first  working  of  the  young  cotton 


OP     AGRICULTURE.  01 

in  rough  land.  This  is  an  advantage  of  much  import- 
ance with  a  crop  so  tender  and  small  as  cotton,  at 
this  stage.  From  the  first  to  the  tenth  of  April  is 
early  enough  to  commence  planting  cotton. 

CULTURE. 

As  soon  as  the  young  cotton  is  up  to  a  good 
stand,  and  the  third  and  fourth  leaves  begin  to 
appear,  the  operation  may  commence.  All  that  is 
now  proposed  to  be  done  is  a  very  rapid  working 
with  the  cotton  scraper  and  hoes,  reducing  the  crop 
to  bunches,  soon  to  pass  over,  and  return  again,  for 
a  more  careful  working.  The  grass  and  weeds  must 
be  kept  down,  and  the  stand  of  cotton  reduced. 

The  second  working  should  follow  with  as  little 
delay  as  practicable,  the  plows  or  sweeps,  as  the 
season  requires,  should  be  pushed  forward  as  rapidly 
as  possible,  throwing  or  pushing  back  the  earth  to 
the  plant — a  process  which  is  termed  dirting  or  molding 
the  cotton.  The  hoes  follow  immediately,  thin  out  to 
a  §tand,  leaving  one  or  two  of  the  most  vigorous  and 
promising  plants,  freeing  them  from  grass  or  w^eeds, 
and  drawing  the  loose  soil  well  around  them  for  their 
better  support.  The  young  stalk  is  very  tender,  and 
easily  injured  by  bruises,  and  skins,  from  rough  and 
careless  work.  The  cut- worm  and  louse  are  charged 
with  many  sins  which  ought  to  be  put  down  to  care* 
less  working  at  this  critical  stage  of  the  crop. 

The  hoes  have  much  to  do  in  the  culture  of  this 
crop,  and  planters  must  be  prepared  to  devote  pretty 
much  all  their  time  to  it.  It  is  difficult  in  a  work 
like  this  to  say  how  often,  and  in  what  manner,  this 
crop  should  always  be  worked,  when  the  character 


92  WALL'S    MANUAL 

of  the  seasons,  and  the  difference  in  the  land,  must 
have  necessarily  so  much  .to  do  in  settling  this  ques- 
tion. As  a  general  rule,  keep  the  earth  loose  and  well 
stirred ;  the  early  workings  to  be  deep  and  close,  and  as 
the  crop  comes  on,  and  the  fruit  begins  to  anpear,  let 
these  workings  be  less  dose  and  shallower,  keeping 
the  soil  soft  and  clean. 

It  is  of  great  importance  to  work  this  crop  late,  and 
it  should  not  cease  until  the  branches  lock,  or  the 
cotton  begins  to  open.  It  is  not  necessary  to  pile 
the  earth,  in  large  quantities,  about  the  roots  of 
cotton,  but  the  tendency  of  all  the  workings,  to  push 
some  earth  under,  and  up  to  the  plants.  The  late 
workings  should  be  very  shallow,  so  as  not  to  break  the 
roots  of  the  plant. 

SELECTION     OF     SEED. 

The  selection  of  seed  is  an  interest  not  to  be  disre- 
garded. Planters  have  been  humbugged  a  great  deal 
by  dealers  and  speculators  in  seed,  yet  we  w^ould 
greatly  err  to  conclude  no  improvement  could  be 
made.  We  should,  howrever,  save  ourselves  from  this 
sort  of  imposition,  and  improve  our  own  seed  by 
going  into  the  field  and  picking,  each  year,  from  some 
of  the  best  formed  and  best-bearing  stalks,  and  thus 
keep  up  the  improvement.  Great  benefit  may  often 
be  derived  by  changes  of  seed  in  the  same  neighbor- 
hood, from  difference  of  soil,  and  occasional  changes 
from  a  distant  and  different  climate. 

The  picking,  ginning  and  packing  of  cotton  is  re- 
duced to  such  a  speedy  and  scientific  operation  that 
it  is  unnecessary  to  treat  of  them  in  a  work  of  this 
kind. 


O  tf    AGRICULTURE. 


The  Manures)  both  Home-made  and  Artificial,  suitable 
for  the  Cotton  Crop, — Every  kind  of  compost,  green 
crops  turned  in,  cotton  seed,  and  even  naked  leaves 
listed  and  left  to  rot,  improve  this  crop.  But  let  us 
examine  an  analysis  of  this  plant  before  we  discuss 
the  manures  suitable  for  it ; 

ANALYSIS    Otf   TJSE   COTTON   t>LANT. 


Composition  of  100  pounds  of  Ashes  >...  

COTTON  Sl'ALK. 

COTTON    SEED. 

^otash             «...i...i              .  •        i        .       .%»•  »•. 

15^50 

25,30 

Soda                  

10.06 

18.30 

Lime          »    ..v,  i.»»».i     »            v.  ...„..,,%,... 

22*40 

5.CO 

18  53    ' 

3  00 

10,03 

18vlO 

7  52 

.30 

9  00 

27  GO 

3.70 

-  0.00 

2.26 

.90 

LOO 

.90 

100. 

100. 

Of  course  all  green  or  dry  plants,  and  especially 
cotton  seed,  stalks,  and  leaves,  when  well  rotted,  will 
make  a  good  compost  for  the  cotton  crop.  When 
planted  on  cotton  seed,  and  sometimes  on  strong 
stable  manure,  it  is  difficult  to  retain  a  stand,  owing, 
probably,  to  the  stimulating  effects  of  these  strong 
manures,  So,  on  leaves  from  the  woods,  unless  well 
rotted,  in  consequence  of  the  leaves  decaying  away, 
and  exposing  the  roots  too  much  to  the  sun  and  rain* 
These  materials,  by  being  composted  with  gypsum  or 
land  plaster,  and  woods  earth  at  the  rate  of  one  cart 
load  of  stable  manure  or  cotton  seed,  one  load  of 
woods  earth  and  two  bushels  of  land  plaster,  well 
njlixed  together,  will  form  an  excellent  manure,  and 
there  will  be  no  risk  in  the  use,  The  plaster  is  the 
sulphate  of  lime  composed  of  sulphuric  acid  and  lime, 


MANUAL 

it  therefore  furnishes  both  the  acid  and  lime  to  the 
plant,  and  also  eats  up  or1  rots  the  cotton  seedj  and 
the  litter  in  the  stable  rnanure>  The  cotton  seed 
furnishes  phosphate  of  lime,  potash,  soda,  magnesia, 
carbonic  acid,  and,  in  fact,  all  the  ingredients  neces- 
sary for  the  planti  The  stable  manure  furnishes  all 
these  also  in  the  very  best  condition  to  be  taken  up 
by  the  plant* 

The  only  qestion  in  reference  to  using  these 
manures  is  the  cost,  and  the  time  and  trouble  of 
applying  them;  It  will  pay  to  keep  one  hand  with 
mule  and  cart  constantly  employed  collecting  and 
composting  manures^ 

COTTON    SEED, 

Manuring  with  Cotton  Seed, — If  a  soil 5  equally 
adapted  to  corn  and  cotton,  will  continue  to  produce 
remunerative  crops  of  corn  for  thirty  years  without 
rotation  or  manure  (as  many  of  the  prairie  and 
bottom  lands  have  been  known  to  do),  then  its  pro- 
ductiveness for  cotton  might  reasonably  be  expected 
to  continue  for  more  than  a  century  j  providing, 
always,  that  the  stalk,  leaves  and  seed  be  returned  to 
the  soil.  In  view  of  the  fact  just  stated,  how  im* 
provident  is  it  that  we  should  allow  to  bo  wasted 
annually  hundreds  of  thousands  bushels  of  cotton 
seed.  So  long  as  cotton  is  our  staple  (and  "  cotton  is 
king"),  we  cannot  afford  to  lose  a  bushel  of  cotton 
seed.  We.  cannot  afford  to  apply  it  as  a  manure  on  a 
large  scale  to  anything  but  our  cotton  crop.  If  applied 
to  corn,  the  interest  realized  will  fall  far  short  of  that 
which  would  have  been  received  had  it  been  applied) 
in  a  proper  manner,  to  the  cotton  field! 


0  F    A  G  R  I  C  U  L  T  U  II  E  ,  05 

Manner  of  Applying  Cotton  Seed, — It  is  commonly 
stated  that  the  cotton  seed  is  a  better  manure  for 
corn  than,  cotton.  It  is  strange  that  cotton  should 
form  an  exception  to  a  rule  so  well  established,  that 
each  plant  is  its  own  best  manure,  but  the  present  maw-- 
ner  of  applying  the  cotton  seed  manure  may  bring 
about  such  a  result.  The  young  cotton  plant  is  less 
hardy  than  corn,  and  the  contact  with  its  roots  of 
hot,  fermenting  cotton  seed,  seems  to  act  in  the  same 
manner  as  an  overdose  of  fresh  stable  manure  would 
in  other  cases.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  well  known 
that  if  fermentation  or  decay  of  cotton  seed  is 
allowed  to  progress  too  far,  or  to  terminate  before 
the  seed  is  used  as  manure,  the  energy  of  its  action  is 
very  sensibly  lessened.  Probably  the  best  method 
of  avoiding  both  inconveniences,  would  be  to  allow 
the  cotton  seed  to  decay  in  the  ground  itself,  intro- 
ducing it  into  the  soil  some  weeks,  or  even  months, 
previous  to  the  planting  of  the  cotton.  When  the  seed 
ferments,  the  soil  above  them  will  absorb  and  retain 
the  valuable  gases  arising,  from  the  fermentation. 
Thus :  run  a  furrow  in  the  middle  of  the  future  bed, 
scatter  the  seed  in  it,  then  lap  enough  earth  over  this 
center  furrow  and  the  cotton  seed  to  bury  them 
thoroughly — -just  before  planting  bed  up  in  the  usual 
manner.  The  tap  root  and  its  fibres  will  then  reach 
and  assimlate  the  nourishment  contained  in  the- 
cotton  seed  at  the  period  when  the  plant  is  not  only 
able  to  bear,  without  injury,  the  powerful  stimulus^ 
but  is  most  particularly  in  need  of  it.  Another 
method  is  to  compost  the  cotton  seed,  as  described 
in  chapter  VII,  part  first,  of  this  work,  with  land 
plaster  or  sulphate  of  lime,  and  woods  mold  in  the 


l»6  W  A  L  L  '  8     M  A  N  UAL 

proportion  of  one  bushel  of  plaster  to  twenty  bushels 
of  seed,  and  twenty  bushels  of  mold.  If  one-half  of 
a  bushel  of  fresh  slaked  lime  be  added,  the  decom- 
position of  the  seed  will  be  greatly  hastened. 

Feeding  Cotton  Seed, — We  cannot  afford  to  feed 
cotton  seed  to  our  cattle,  unless  we  keep  them  at  home 
and  collect  the  manure,  to  be  scrupulously  returned  to 
the  soil  from  which  it  was  derived.  The  cotton  seed 
will  take  away  from  the  soil,  upon  which  a  bale  of 
cotton  has  been  grown,  twice  the  amount  of  mineral 
ingredients  necessary  to  produce  twenty  bushels  of 
corn.  Hence  the  absolute  necessity  of  returning  the 
cotton  seed  to  the  land  in  some  form,  either  as  seed 
or  animal  manure.  Some  planters  object  to  using 
cotton  seed  as  manure,  on  account  of  the  time  and 
cost  of  its  application.  But  if  the  seed  has  been  well 
rotted,  and  in  a  fine  state  of  division,  one  of  Schofield's 
manure  distributors,  or  other  implement  of  the  same 
kind  (such  as  are  now  used  in  the  State  of  Georgia), 
will  distribute  the  manure  in  the  drill  very  rapidly 
and  effectively.  These  implements  can  be  so  regu- 
lated as  to  distribute  the  fertilizers  in  large  or  small 
•quantities,  according  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil. — [Dr. 
Hilgard's  Geological  and  Agricultural  Report  for  State 
of  Mississippi,  1860.  , 

Cotton  seed  as  a  manure,  is  one  of  the  richest  and 
best  that  nature  has  provided  for  the  planter — suit- 
able for  any  kind  of  crop  or  any  kind  of  soil.  What 
fatal  economy,  then,  to  feed  or  sell  the  seed,  and  rob 
the  land. 

For  the  application  of  the  artificial  fertilizers,  we 
will  take  up  and  examine  the  experiments  of  others 
in  their  use.  First  upon  the  list,  let  us  take  Mr, 


OFAGRICULTURE.  97 

David  Dickson's  plan.  He  says,  in  a  letter  on  the 
subject  to  the  Southern  Cultivator,  December  5th,  1868: 
"  I  will  now  give  you  a  plan  that  will  carry  the  cotton 
crop  through  eight  or  ten  weeks  of  drouth  with 
safety,  and  enable  it  to  get  ahead  of  the  caterpillar. 
The  boll- worm  may  come  too  soon  for  a  full  crop,  but 
one  need  not  fear  the  caterpillar,  if  they  do  not  come 
before  the  first  of  September.  Always  remember  the 
soil  must  be  good  and  deep,  and  subsoiled  six  inches 
deeper,  and  furnished  with  a  good  supply  of  Peruvian 
guano,  dissolved  bones,  plaster  and  salt  (one  hundred 
pounds  of  each).  A  cotton  plant,  to  stand  two  weeks' 
drouth,  must  have  four  inches  soil  and  six  inches  sub- 
soil ;  three  weeks',  six  inches  soil,  and  same  subsoil ; 
four  weeks",  eight  inches  soil,  six  inches  subsoil ;  and 
to  stand  ten  weeks'  drouth,  sixteen  inches  soil,  with 
six  inches  broken  below. 

This  plan  will  hold  the  forms  and  bolls  during 
the  whole  time,  and  not  give  them  up  when  it  rains. 
If  you  prepare  your  land  and  carry  out  this  plan  well, 
you  may  expect  from  four  hundred  to  eight  hundred 
pounds  of  lint  per  acre,  according  to  the  character  of 
the  land. 

Mr,  Jas.  H,  Wilkins,  of  Bellemonte,  Jefferson 
county,  Georgia,  under  date  of  December?,  1868,  gives 
the  following  statement  of  the  relative  value  of  the 
different  fertilizers  in  the  production  of  cotton.  The 
experiment  was  tried  on  twelve  acres,  allowing  one 
acre  to  each  fertilizer: 


98 


WALL'S    MANUAL 


KAMI    OF    FERTILIZER. 

No.  of 

Ibs 

Costp'r 
Acre. 

Total 
yield 

Without 
Manure. 

Gain. 

Peru,  guano,  Salt,  plaster,  Ches-1 
apeak  e  phos.,  100  pounds  each,  j  '" 

400 
1  400 

$  10  50 
10  00 

12,65 
750 

500 
500 

765 
250 

Cotton  seed,  40  bush's,  50  pounds) 
P.  g'no,  salt,  plas.  &  Ches.  phos  j  '" 

11,00 
200 
13 

13  25 
10  00 

1,062 
10  13 

500 

500 

562 
513 

235 

8  00 

745 

500 

245 

P.    guano,   salt,  plaster  &  PO!U-  ) 
ble  Pacific  g.,  100  pounds  each/  '" 
Soluble  Pacific  guano  

400 
200 

10  50 
8  50 

944 
912 

500 
500 

444 

412 

240 

9  00 

882 

500 

382 

Nonpariel  French  Poudrette  

340 

8  75 

600 

500 

100 

225 

6  25 

740 

500 

240 

165 

8  25 

883 

500 

383 

Peruvian  guano,  salt,   plaster,   Les- 
ter's bone,  100  pounds  each  

400 

10  25 

1,182 

500 

682 

Mr.  "Wilkins  writes:  "I  send  you  the  result  of 
my  experiments  with  fertilizers,  on  twelve  acres. 
The  soil  is  what  would  be  termed  red,  stiff  land  in 
this  country.  The  land  was  broken  up  seven  (7) 
inches  deep  in  January,  with  turning  plows.  On  the 
2cl  of  May  it  was  run  off  with  a  long  six  (6)  inch 
scooter  plow — the  rows  run  three  feet  nine  inches 
apart.  A  wide,  very  long  shovel  plow  was  then  run 
in  the  scooter  furrow,  the  fertilizers  then  applied,  in 
the  furrow,  and  the  rows  bedded  with  a  turning  plow. 

The  seasons  were  favorable  until  the  middle  of 
July — then  about  three  weeks  parching,  dry,  hot 
weather.  Though  the  balance  of  the  season,  was. 
very  propitious,  yet  the  cotton  never  recovered  from 
the  effects  of  the  hot  weather  in  July.  The  cater- 
pillars made  their  appearance  in  September,  and  did 
some  damage — perhaps  a  loss  of  two  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds  to  the  acre. 

I  manured  all  my  cotton  with  fertilizers  (mostly 
the  manipulations  Nos.  1  and  U)  and  am  well  pleased 
with  the  result.  My  crop  averaged  nine  hundred 


OP    AGRICULTURE,  99 

mid  fifty  pounds  of  seed  cotton  to  the  acre.  I  shall 
hereafter  Use  none  but  the  manipulated,  commonly 
known  as  '  Dickson  Preparation/  M 

Experiments  with  diiferent  fertilizers,  applied  at 
a  cost  of  $10  per  acre,  made  by  James  Davidson, 
Woodville,  Georgia ;  reported,  December  14,  1868 : 


KINDS  OF   MANURE  USED, 

No.  of 
Ibs. 

Yield 

Seed 
Cotton 
Ibs. 

Yield 
no 
Manure 
Ibs. 

Inc'd 
yield, 

No  manure  

200 
231 
357 
415 
333 
500 
286 
286 
440 

630 
1108 
880 
1018 
916 
972 
794 
760 
796 
632 

630 
630 
630 
630 
630 
630 
630 
630 
630 
630 

478 
250 
388 
286 
342 
164 
130 
166 
2 

Wilcox  Gr.  &  Co.,  M.  Guano  

Peruvian,  Phoenix,  Plaster,  Salt  

Peruvian,  Plaster  and  Salt  

&ied*s  Am'd  Phosphate 

Ried's  Phosphate  

Rhode's  Phosphate  

Augusta  Am'd  Phosphate  

No.  4. — Composed  of  %  Peruvian  guano,   %  Wilcox's,   ^  Plaster,  and 

J4  Salt. 
No.  5. — Composed  of  %  Peruvian  guano,  %  Plaster,  and  %  Salt. 

These  fertilizers  were  distributed  evenly  and  accu- 
rately in  the  drill,  with  "Schofield's  Tin  Guano 
Distributor,"  and  then  bedded  up  in  the  usual  way* 

The  "boll  worm"  made  its  appearance  about  the 
15th  of  August,  in  great  numbers*  Its  ravages  and 
destruction  of  young  bolls  were  incredible.  About 
the  1st  of  September  the  caterpillar  entered  the  field, 
and  literally)  with  the  exception,  now  and  then,  of  a 
small  space,  stripped  the  whole  surface.  Under  these 
circumstances  the  crops  did  not  average  more  than 
one-third  to  one-half." 

So,  it  seems,  from  the  above  experiments,  that, 
notwithstanding  the  ravages  of  the  worms,  two 
hundred  pounds  of  Peruvian  guano  made  an  increase 
of  four  hunded  and  seventy- eight  pounds  of  seed 
cotton  to  the  acre, 


100  WALL'S   MANUAL 

In  Mr.  Wilkins'  experiment,  one  hundred  pounds  of 
Peruvian  guano,  one  hundred  pounds  plaster,  one 
hundred  pounds  salt,  one  hundred  pounds  Chesapeake 
phosphate  of  lime,  made  an  increase  of  seven  hundred 
and  sixty -five  pounds  of  seed  cotton  to  the  acre— 
although  he  lost  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  to 
the  acre  by  the  cotton  caterpillar — at  a  cost  of  ten 
dollars  and  fifty  cents  per  acre,  This  fertilizer  is 
usually  known  as  Dickson's  preparation,  and  seems, 
from  experiment,  to  be  the  best  proportions  to  mix 
these  artificial  fertilizers. 

Let  us  examine,  and  see  why  this  preparation  acts 
With  such  wonderful  effect.  By  the  analysis  of  Peru- 
vian guano,  we  see  it  contains  :  organic  matter,  thirty- 
six  per  cent. ;  ammonia,  seventeen  per  cent. ;  phos- 
phates, twenty- three  and  a  half  per  cent, ;  alkaline 
salts,  nine  and  a  half  per  cent,  [See  appendix,]  The 
plaster  or  sulphate  of  lime  is  composed  of  water, 
thirteen  per  cent, ;  lime,  thirty- three  per  cent, ;  sul- 
phuric acid,  forty-six  per  cent,  [See  appendix,] 

The  Chesapeake  phosphate  is  bone-dust,  made  sol- 
uble with  sulphuric  acid. 

Salt  is  muriatic  acid  and  soda, 

The  Peruvian  guano  furnishes  ammonia;  organic 
matter,  which  is  made  soluble  by  the  sulphuric  acid 
of  the  plaster ;  phosphate,  which  is  acted  upon  by 
sulphuric  acid,  and  alkaline  salts,  which  are  acted 
upon  by  the  muriatic  acid  in  the  common  salt,  and 
by  the  sulphuric  acid. 

The  plaster  or  sulphate  of  lime  is  acted  upon  by  the 
muriatic  acid  of  the  salt,  its  sulphuric  acid  set  free, 
which,  in  turn,  acts  upon  the  bone  dust  or  phosphate, 
and  on  the  organic  matter  of  the  guano,  All  the 


OP     AGRICULTURE,  101 

acids  and  salts  act  with  powerful  effect  upon  the 
vegetable  matter  in  the  soil,  hastening  decomposition 
and  rendering  soluble  the  vegetable  mold,  and  also,  to 
a  great  degree,  by  freeing  the  alkalies,  the  very  sand 
in  the  soil.  This  vegetable  mold  and  sand,  in  their 
turn,  yield  up  potash,  soda,  lime,  carbonic  acid,  and 
in  the  proper  condition  to  be  taken  up  by  the  roots 
of  plants. 

The  action  of  these  constituent  elements  of 'ferti- 
lizers is  fully  discussed  in  the  appendix  to  this  little 
work,  and  the  author  respectfully  refers  the  reader  to 
the  deductions,  experiments  and  illustrations  therein 
stated. 

A   CAUTION    TO    PLANTERS. 

As  many  of  the  artificial  fertilizers  now  upon  the 
market  are  put  up  for  sale,  and  even  Peruvian  guano 
is  adulterated  to  a  vast  extent,  it  requires  a  great 
degree  of  caution  on  the  part  of  the  planter  in  pur- 
chasing such  articles.  The  only  safeguard  is  to  buy 
these  manures  from  perfectly  reliable  and  responsible 
dealers,  who  are  willing  to  guarantee  the  fertilizers 
to  be  equal  to  the  standard  of  value  branded  upon  the 
bags  and  barrels,  and  as  published  in  their  advertise- 
ments in  the  public  journals. 

ANEXPERIMENTMADEBYTIIERAINS,  IN  1868. 

On  the  plantation  of  a  brother  of  the  author,  in 
Attala  county,  Mississippi,  there  is  a  piece  of  land 
containing  one  and  one-half  acres,  It  is  immediately 
belojv  and  adjoining  the  horse-lot ;  so  situated  that 
the  washings  from  the  lot  spread  very  equally  over 
the  land  below  it.  The  rains  from  the  cloiuls  manure 


102  WALL'S    MANUAL 

the  land,  by  leaching  out  the  ingredients  from  the 
droppings  of  seven  mules  and  two  horses.  Now  for 
the  result :  this  acre  and  a  half  produced  a  bale  and  a 
half  of  good  cotton,  whilst  on  the  rest  of  the  plantation, 
on  account  of  the  cotton  caterpillar  and  boll-worm,  one 
hundred  and  sixty  acres  planted,  only  produced  forty 
bales  of  cotton.  The  worms  attacked  the  cotton  on 
the  lot,  as  well  as  on  the  rest  of  the  plantation,  but 
the  fertilizers  had  so  matured  the  crop  on  the  lot  as  to 
bring  about  the  above  result.  This  year,  18G9,  the 
same  lot  is  planted  in  cotton,  with  the  same  or  better 
result.  Hiyh  manuring  will  pay  on  the  cotton  crop. 


CHAP  TEE   XIII. 

CULTIVATION    OF    WHEAT,    RYE    AND    OATS. 
PREPARATION    OF    SOIL. 

Deep  plowing  is  not  so  necessary  for  wheat,  rye, 
and  oats,  as  it  is  for  corn ;  because  their  roots  do  not 
run,  naturally,  deep ;  nor  does  their  season  of  growth 
so  frequently  subject  them  to  drouth.  A  point  of  great 
importance  in  the  preparation  of  land,  for  wheat 
especially,  is  that  it  shall  be  as  clean  as  possible  at  the 
time  of  sowing.  Grass  and  other  green  substances, 
whether  they  are  plowed  down  just  before  sowing  or 
left  strewed  over  the  surface  after  sowing,  are  often 
more  injurious  than  beneficial  to  the  crop  of  wheat. 
So,  when  straw  or  any  kind  of  litter  is  spread  over 
wheat  in  autumn  or  early  winter,  more  harm  than 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  103 

good  generally  results  from  the  application.  The 
injury  is  supposed,  by  some  judicious  farmers,  to  be 
owing,  in  part,  to  the  fact,  that  the  shading  of  the 
green  crop  makes  it  too  tender  near  the  roots  to 
stand  the  severities  of  the  winter  and  early  spring ; 
and  that  the  litter  or  straw  serves  as  a  harbor  for 
chinch-buffs  and  other  mischievous  insects. 

O 

When  green  crops  or  unrotted  manures  are  plowed 
down  for  wh^at,  it  should  be  done  in  the  summer,  so 
that  they  may  be  well  decayed  and  ready  to  feed  the 
newly  planted  crop  in  the  first  stages  of  its  growth. 
Clover,  peas,  and  other  leguminous  plants,  having 
considerable  quantities  of  nitrogenized  matter  in  them, 
undergo  speedy  decay ;  and,  therefore,  may  be  plowed 
down  at  a  later  period  than  would  be  suitable  for 
most  other  crops.  The  time  for  this  kind  of  plowing 
in  of  grass  and  clover  fields  must,  of  course,  vary  to 
some  extent  with  the  variations  of  climate,  soil  and 
exposure. 

The  cultivation  of  such  crops  as  cotton,  tobacco 
and  potatoes,  is  found  to  be  one  of  the  best  means  of 
preparing  a  soil  for  wheat.  The  benefit  arises  chiefly 
from  the  clean  condition  in  which  they  leave  the  land. 
They  also  leave  the  soil  in  a  favorable  chemical  condi- 
tion for  wheat. 

The  sowing  of  wheat  after  corn  is  regarded  by  the 
best  farmers  in  Virginia  as  affording  a  very  doubtful 
chance  for  a  good  crop.  The  chances  after  oats,  aie 
regarded  as  much  more  favorable,  if  the  oat  stubble 
is  turned  down  early,  that  it  may  rot,  while  the  scat- 
tered grains  of  oats  left  upon  the  ground  may  spring 
up,  and  be  killed  during  the  seeding  of  the  wheat. 


104  WALL'S   MANUAL 

WHEAT. 

Manuring  the  Crop* — Some  farmers  put  off  the 
application  of  their  stable  and  yard  manures  to 
wheat,  until  winter  or  spring.  When  this  is  done, 
they  are  very  poorly  compensated  for  their  labor. 
Winter  wheat  has  two  periods  of  growth;  the  first 
in  iiutum,  and  the  second,  during  the  following  spring 
and  summer.  The  vigor  of  the  crop,  in  its  second 
period  of  growth,  depends  very  much  upon  the  health- 
ful development,  the  roots,  in  the  first  period  of 
growth.  If,  then,  manure  is  incorporated  with  the 
soil  at  the  time  of  seeding,  the  impulse  given  to  the 
wheat  plants  in  autum,  is  almost  certain  to  continue 
until  the  crop  is  matured. 

This  always  holds  true,  unless  some  physical  cause 
comes  in  to  prevent  it,  such  as  severe  drought,  or  the 
depredation  of  insects.  But  when  manure  is  spread 
upon  feeble  wTheat  in  winter  or  spring,  it  comes  too 
late.  The  basis  of  a  good  crop  is  not  there.  As  well 
might  you  expect  to  make  a  great  ox  from  a  stinted 
calf,  as  to  make  a  good  crop  under  such  circumstances. 

Modes  of  Sowing  Wheat. — There  are  two  plans  pur- 
sued very  largely  in  sowing  wheat.  First,  the  old 
method  of  sowing  wheat  broadcast,  by  hand,  is  still 
kept  up  on  nearly  all  the  small  farms,  as  well  as  many 
of  the  larger  ones,  and  especially  at  the  South.  The 
slovenly  method  of  sowing  the  grain  among  the 
standing  corn  crop,  and  covering  with  shovel  plows 
or  cultivators,  is  fast  losing  favor. 

The  custom  of  breaking  up  the  ground  with  a  large 
plow,  closely,  then  sowing  and  covering  with  the  har- 

*For  anatysis  of  grain  and  straw  of  wheat,  see  page  41,  in  table. 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  105 

row,   cultivator  or  shovel  plow,  is  still  extensively 
used,  and  well  suited  to  many  soils. 

The  second  method,  is  "drilling"  which,  in  the 
past  few  years,  has  been  gaining  favor  with  the  best 
and  most  progressive  farmers.  The  greatest  majority 
of  those  who  have  tried  this  method,  would  be  wil- 
ling to  give  it  up.  Some  of  the  most  important 
results  claimed  for  the  drill  system,  are  as  follows  : 

1.  The  quantity  of  seed  may  be  regulated  to  suit 
the  quality  of  the  soil, 

2.  A  smaller  quantity  of  seed  is  used  to  the  acre . 

3.  The  depth  of  the  seed  is  uniform,  and  the  depth 
may  be  suited  to  the  soil. 

4.  The  plants  shade  the  soil  less  completely,  admit 
sunshine  and  air ;  the  wheat  less  liable  to  rust. 

5.  Small  quantities   of  such  fertilizers  as   guano, 
plaster,  ashes,  bone-dust,  etc.,  can  be  applied  more 
directly  to  the  wheat,  by  a  proper  attachment  to  the 
drill,  and  with  more  economy. 

Harvesting  the  Wheat  Crop. — The  time  of  wheat 
harvest,  must  be  determined  by  the  condition  of  the 
grain.  The  cutting  should  be  done  before  the  crop 
is  fully  ripe,  or,  as  soon  as  the  grain  has  passed  out 
of  the  "  milk  state," — that  is,  as  soon  as  the  inner 
part  has  become  firm,  but  is  still  soft  enough  to  yield 
readily  to  the  thumb-nail  when  pressed  into  it, — the 
crop  then  is  at  its  greatest  value. 

The  straw  then  is  of  a  greenish-yellow,  and  there 
is  still  a  green  tinge  about  the  head.  If  the  wheat 
is  allowed  to  stand  three  or  four  days  after  it  reaches 
this  stage,  the  straw  and  head  assumes  a  brown 
appearance — the  crop  has  become  dead  ripe.  The 

grain  and  straw  have  then  both  become  less  valuable. 
5* 


106  w  ALL'S   M  A  N  u  A  L 

A  portion  of  the  starch  of  the  grain  has  been  con- 
verted into  bran  ;  and,  according  to  the  testimony  of 
the  best  millers,  it  will  not  make  as  much,  nor  as 
good  flour,  as  that  which  has  been  harvested  wThen 
less  perfectly  ripe. 

When  cut  in  that  condition,  which  gives  the  best 
grain,  the  straw  has  more  starch,  and  more  albumin- 
ous matter  in  it,  and  is  therefore,  more  nutritious 
than  it  would  be  if  allowed  to  become  dead  ripe. 

Long  exposure  to  rain,  has  an  injurious  effect  on 
both  grain  and  straw.  The  dark  color  thus  produced, 
is  owing  to  partial  decay  on  the  surface.  When  this 
takes  place  on  the  surface  of  the  grain,  the  decayed 
particles  become  mingled  with  the  flour  in  grinding, 
and  gives  it  a  dark  shade.  At  the  same  time, 
repeated  wetting  and  drying,  destroys  the  nutritive 
substances  in  the  straw.  Wheat,  therefore,  should 
be  placed  under  shelter,  or  carefully  stacked,  as  soon 
as  it  has  become  sufficiently  dry  to  prevent  moulding 
or  heating  in  bulk. 

RYE. 

The  same  remarks  may  be  applied  to  rye,  with 
some  little  variation,  as  the  above  for  wheat. 

OATS. 

The  best  chance  for  a  good  crop,  is  to  sow  them 
upon  corn  land,  or  wheat  stubble,  of  the  previous  year. 
A  freshly  turned  soil  seldom  yields  a  full  crop  of  this 
grain  ;  but  any  land  of  tolerable  fertility,  which  has 
been  in  cultivation  the  previous  year,  will  produce  a 
fine  crop  of  oats. 

Sowing. — The  land  should  be  plowed  in  the  spring, 


OP    AGRICULTURE.  107 

or  latter  part  of  winter,  and  the  sowing  be  done  as 
early  in  the  spring  as  the  weather  will  permit.  Some 
varieties  may  be  sown  in  the  fall,  and  will  not  only 
live  during  the  winter,  but  come  forward  more  rapidly 
in  the  spring.  Their  early  progress  often  enables 
them  to  escape  droughts,  by  which  the  others  are 
cut  short. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

PEA   CROP. 

We  will  now  take  up  and  study  the  pea  crop,  as 
one  of  the  highest  value  in  -Southern  agriculture, 
There  is  a  large  class  of  plants  which  have  their  seed 
enclosed  in  a  pod.  The  different  kinds  of  bean  and 
pea  are  examples  of  this  class.  These  are  called 
" leguminous"  plants.  This  whole  class  of  plants  is 
remarkable  for  the  quantity  of  nitrogen  they  contain. 
The  "  ligumen  "  of  peas  is  so  abundant  as  to  place 
them  above  both  wheat  and  corn  in  nutritive  value. 
The  stalks  of  this  plant  also  abounds  in  protiene 
matter,  and  in  that  respect,  resembles  clover  hay  in 
composition  and  value,  and  hence  makes  excellent 
rough  forage  for  stock,  hoth  horses  and  cattle.  When 
the  vines  of  peas  decay,  ammonia  is  always  one  of  the 
products.  This  has  also  been  found  to  be  one  of  the 
most  valuable  ingredients  in  guano  and  stable  manure. 
If,  then,  pea  crops  are  plowed  into  the  soil  at  the 
proper  period  of  growth,  that  is,  at  the  time  when 
the  seeds  have  become  firm,  but  not  dry,  considerable 


108  WALL'S   MANUAL 

quantities  of  that  valuable  fertilizer — ammonia — will 
be  generated  in  the  soil.  Clover  seed  was  once 
regarded  as  almost  the  only  suitable  crop  to  be  em- 
ployed as  a  green  manure,  but  experience  has  shown 
that  the  pea  plants  have  a  similar  value  ;  and,  in 
some  climates  arid  soils,  certain  varieties  of  peas  seem 
to  be  even  superior  to  clover,  for  the  purpose  of  plow- 
ing in  as  a  green  crop. 

VARIETIES. 

Different  latitudes  require  different  varieties.  Those 
only  which  have  a  comparatively  short  period  of 
growth  are  adapted  to  the  Northern  States,  Those 
which  require  a  longer  season  and  more  hot  sun,  are 
confined  chiefly  to  the  Southern  States.  All  the 
varieties  at  the  South  are  embraced  under  the  gen- 
eral names  of  "cornfied  pea"  and  "  Southern  pea." 
Mr.  Edmund  Ruffin,  sr.,  in  his  valuable  essays  on  this 
crop,  enumerates  nine  varieties.  First — The  buff- 
colored  pea  or  cow  pea.  Second — The  bass  (red) 
pea.  Third — The  black- eye  pea.  Fourth — The 
early  black — has  perfectly  black  and  large  seeds. 
Fifth — The  mottled  or  shinny  r>eii.  >  iz^i — j.ne 
large  black  or  tory  (late  pea).  Seventh — Small 
black  (late  pea).  Eighth— Green- eye  pea  (white). 
Ninth — The  small  green  or  bush  pea.  But  these  are 
by  no  means  all  the  names  to  the  varieties  of  "  South- 
ern pea." 

SOIL. 

Crops  of  this  class  will  grow  well  on  almost  any 
kind  of  land  not  deficient  in  lime.  The  best  soil  for 
peas  is  a  warm,  sa^ndy  loam,  of  medium  fertility.  A 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  109 

very  rich  soil  produces  a  most  luxuriant  growth  of 
vines,  especially  in  the  "  Southern  pea,"  but  the 
quantity  of  seed  is  then  but  small.  On  medium  soil 
the  crop  of  vines  is  not  so  heavy,  but  the  seed  crop 
abundant.  Even  a  very  poor  soil  will  generally  pro- 
duce a  crop  sufficient,  when  turned  under,  to  add 
considerably  to  its  fertility.  South  of  37°,  north 
latitude,  almost  any  soil  may  be  restored  to  fertility 
from  the  most  exhausted  condition,  by  cultivating  the 
pea,  with  the  application  of  some  form  of  lime,  either 
marl,  caustic  lime,  plaster  or  ashes,  attended  with 
proper  rotation,  and  as  frequent  plowing  as  possible. 
Plowing  for  the  pea  crop  should  be  deep  and 
thorough.  The  roots  penetrate  a  well-broken  soil  to 
a  great  depth,  and  as  the  plant  gathers  mineral  sub- 
stance largely  through  its  roots,  especially  lime  and 
potash,  with  sulphuric  acid  and  phosphoric  acid, 
these  will  be  transferred  from  a  lower  to  the  higher 
parts  of  the  soil,  and  be  left  by  the  decaying  roots 
in  a  good  condition,  to  be  taken  up  by  succeeding 
crops  of  grain,  tobacco  or  cotton. 

PLANTING  OR  SOWING  PEAS. 

The  methods  adopted  for  planting  may  vary  with 
the  object  to  be  attained.  If  the  crop  is  cultivated 
for  seed  and  forage,  the  largest  yield  can  be  obtained 
by  cultivating  in  rows,  varying  in  distance  accord- 
ing to  the  pea  to  be  planted.  The  varieties  which 
grow  erect  (bush  pea)  may  be  sown  in  rows  two  or 
three  feet  apart.  Those  which  spread  their  vines, 
like  most  of  the  Southern  peas,  should  be  in  rows 
fitmi  three  to  four  and  a  half  feet  apart.  If  the 
object  is  to  plow  the  pea  vines  under,  the  land  should 


110  WALL'S    MANUAL 

be  well  prepared,  and  the  crop  sown  broadcast,  and 
covered  with  a  harrow  or  cultivator.  The  Southern 
pea  has  been  cultivated  in  the  Southern  Atlantic 
States  from  time  immemorial.  Some  of  the  methods 
pursued  in  Virginia  and  the  States  farther  South  are 
as  follows,  viz  : 

First  method — "  The  oldest  and  most  extended 
culture  in  Virginia,  is  to  plant  the  peas  after  and 
among  corn.  When  the  corn  is  ten  or  twelve  inches 
high,  and  has  been  just  plowed  and  hoed,  peas  are 
planted  in  the  drill  between  the  hills  of  corn.  One 
more  plowing  is  all  that  is  given  the  corn,  and  is  all 
the  culture  required  for  the  peas." 

Second  method — "  The  next  most  extensive  mode  of 
pea  culture  is  also  as  a  secondary  crop  amongst  corn, 
but  by  sowing  broadcast  when  giving  the  last  plow- 
ing. This  costs  but  the  seed  and  labor  of  sowing. 
The  crop  all  goes  for  manure,  and  is  seldom  ripe 
enough  (in  Virginia)  for  good  manure." 

Third  mode — "And  one  I  think  the  best  and 
cheapest,  to  raise  a  pea  crop  for  manuring,  is  to  sow 
the  seed  broadcast  on  a  separate  field  without  corn." 
Edmund  Ruffiri's  Essay. 

In  sowing  peas  broadcast  to  be  plowed  under, 
for  wheat  or  other  crops,  the  land  should  be 
broken  up  deeply  in  winter,  and  about  the 
first  week  in  June  the  peas  sowed  at  the  rate  of 
one  bushel,  or  five  pecks,  to  the  acre,  and  either 
harrowed  in  with  a  heavy  harrow,  or  plowed  in  with 
single  plows,  according  to  the  state  of  the  land.v 
P.  M.  Edmondston,  of  North  Carolina. 

The  seeds  are  believed  to  have  a  higher  fertilizing 
value  than  the  vines,  if  they  come  to  maturity,  but 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  Ill 

by  tliis  time  the  vines  have  lost  part  of  their  value. 
The  question  as  to  the  proper  time  of  planting  in, 
resolves  itself  into  this  form  :  "  When  will  the  seed 
and  vines  together  generate  the  greatest  amount  of 
ammonia  in  the  soil  ?  " 

Chemistry  would  reply :  "  When  nearly  all  the 
seeds  have  become  firm,  but  not  dry."  At  this  time 
the  most  forward  pods  will  be  dry,  but  the  vines 
still  retain  much  of  their  greenness,  and  contain  the 
largest  amount  of  ammomVi -producing  ingredients. 
This  is  the  theory  which  science  would  present  to  the 
inquirer.  The  experiments  of  the  most  successful  pea 
growers  of  the  South  confirm  these  simple  deduc- 
tions of  science. 

If  the  vines  are  to  be  used  as  forage,  they  may  be 
cut  off  close  to  the  ground  with  sharp  hoes,  or  still 
better,  writh  short,  stout  scythes,  and  cured  like  clo- 
ver hay.  Another  plan,  is  to  put  up  tall,  slender 
shocks,  supported  by  a  small  stake  set  in  the  ground, 
to  remain  until  cured  enough  to  stack,  or  put  away 
in  a  house. 

Mr.  Edmonston,  of  North  Carolina,  says  :  "  As  an 
article  of  forage  or  fodder,  there  is  none  superior  to 
the  pea  vine.  Horses  and  cattle  eat  it  with  avidity, 
and  in  preference  to  any  other  kind  of  fodder.  The 
difficulty  of  saving  these  vines,  is  the  chief  objection 
to  their  use.  The  writer  believes  that  they  can 
easily  be  saved,  in  the  month  of  September,  by 
placing  forks  in  the  ground,  in  a  straight  line,  about 
six  feet  in  height,  and  poles  on  the  forks,  then  place 
rails,  with  one  end  resting  on  the  ground,  the  other 
u^on  the  poles,  about  six  or  eight  inches  apart,  after 
the  manner  of  an  old  fashioned  top-stack,  as  it  is 


112  WALL'S    MANUAL 

called,  leaving  both  ends  open  ;  upon  these  rails  throw 
the  vines,  until  about  a  foot  deep.  Throw  over  them 
straw  or  grass,  and  in  a  short  time  they  will  be 
cured,"  and  a  large  amount  of  most  excellent  forage 
secured. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

HAY     CROPS. 
CLOVER. 

From  the  three  divisions  of  its  leaf,  clover 
is  called  "  Trifolium"  Thero  arc  several  varieties  cul- 
tivated in  different  countries.  The  common  red 
clover,  is  considered  the  best  for  our  climate  (Vir- 
ginia). This  is  a  biennial  plant.  If  sown  in  the 
early  spring,  and  not  too  much  shaded  by  other 
crops,  it  produces  a  few  blossoms  the  first  season. 
When  allowed  to  grow  the  next  year  to  full  matu- 
rity, without  cutting,  it  dies  ;  but  if  cut  or  pastured, 
it  lives  through  a  third,  or  even  a  fourth  summer,  and 
retains  vigor  enough  to  produce  a  tolerably  fine  crop. 

Soil. — Clover  grows  best  on  clay  loams,  having 
a  good  supply  of  lime,  in  some  available  form ;  but 
almost  any  soil  (not  marshy)  may  be  made  to  pro- 
duce a  good  crop,  by  frequent  applications  of  ashes 
and  plaster  (gypsum).  The  roots  of  clover  run  deep, 
and  hence  requires  a  deeply- broken  soil. 

Sowing. — The  spring  is  undoubtedly  the  best  time 
for  securing  a  good  stand  of  clover,  while  March  and 
April  are  the  safest  months  for  sowing  it,  in  our 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  113 

latitude  (Virginia).  January  or  February,  farther 
South,  or  perhaps  in  the  fall,  with  wheat.  Five  or 
six  quarts  of  seed  to  the  acre,  or  even  four  quarts, 
according  to  the  character  of  the  soil,  is  enough  to 
secure  a  good  stand.  The  seed  should  be  mixed  with 
something  to  increase  its  bulk.  The  seed  for  an  acre 
may  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  one  bushel  of  ashes 
arid  a  half  bushel  of  plaster,  finely  ground.  The  seed 
are  sown  upon  the  surface  of  the  land,  immediately 
after  a  slight  freeze,  if  sowed  very  early,  and  allowed 
to  settle  in  the  land  by  rains. 

Cutting,  etc. — If  the  clover  is  designed  for  hay,  it 
should  be  cut  at  the  period  of  its  growth  at  which  it 
has  the  greatest  nutritive  value.  This  occurs  when 
about  one-third  or  one-half  of  the  heads  have  com- 
menced turning  brown.  After  this  time,  the  sugar 
and  starch,  which  abound  in  the  green  stalks,  are 
rapidly  converted  into  woody  fibre.  The  first  crop 
of  the  season  is  most  valuable  for  hay,  but  the 
second  may  be  cut  for  this  purpose. 

The  leaves  of  the  clover  are  very  abundant,  and' 
constitute  a  very  valuable  part  of  the  hay  ;  but  when 
the  hay  is  dry,  they  are  very  brittle,  and  liable  to  be 
lost  in  making  and  stacking  the  crop.  To  prevent 
this  loss,  let  the  clover  lie  in  the  swath  until  the  top 
is  tolerably  well  cured,  and  then  turn  it  over  care- 
fully with  a  fork,  without  additional  tossing. 

The  hay  may  be  packed  away  in  mows,  or  safely 
stacked  before  it  is  entirely  cured,  if  a  layer  of  dry 
straw  a  few  inches  thick  is  spread  over  the  mow  or 
stack,  for  every  foot  in  depth  of  hay.  The  straw 
ab*sorbs  the  moisture  of  the  hay,  and  also  admits  air. 
If  there  is  much  greenness  in  the  hay  when  put  up, 


1 14  w  ALL'S   MAN  u  A  L 

a  little  salt  spread  over  it,  will  not  only  assist  in  pre- 
serving it,  but  will  make  it  palatable  to  the  stock. 
The  straw  used  in  packing,  is  flavored  by  contact 
with  the  clover,  and  stock  will  eat  it  almost  as  well 
as  the  hay. 

The  pea- vine  hay,  spoken  of  in  a  former  chapter, 
may  be  cured  by  a  similar  process  as  the  above,  and, 
perhaps,  to  better  advantage  than  by  any  other 
method. 

Gathering  Seed. — The  second  crop  is  generally  best 
for  seed  ;  because,  in  the  first  place,  the  heads  are 
usually  better  filled  than  those  of  the  first  crop,  and 
because  it  is  more  clear  of  weeds  and  foreign  plants. 
A  plan  for  gathering  only  the  heads  of  clover,  which 
is  very  effectual,  is  to  have  a  light,  but  capacious  box, 
swung  to  the  axle  of  a  pair  of  wheels,  so  that  the 
bottom  of  the  box  shall  be  about  six  or  eight  inches 
from  the  ground.  On  the  lower  edge  of  the  box,  to- 
ward the  horse,  have  a  set  of  fingers  (like  a  coarse 
comb),  about  the  fourth  of  an  inch  apart.  Let  a 
careful  hand  tilt  the  box,  so  that  the  comb  will  run 
two  or  three  inches  from  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
all  the  heads  will  be  pulled  off  and  forced  back  into 
the  box. 

GRASSES. 

We  have  no  room  for  the  specific  directions  for  the 
cultivation  of  all  the  grasses  used  in  hay-making. 
Some  general  remarks  on  the  grasses,  will  have  to 
serve  our  purpose. 

Timothy. — This  is  sometimes  called  "cat's  tail,"  and 
in  some  of  the  Northern  States,  "Herd's  grass."  It 
is  a  perennial,  and  makes  hay  of  fine  quality,  when 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  115 

cut  in  the  proper  season ;  and  where  the  soil  suits  it, 
the  crop  is  generally  abundant.  This  grass,  on  ac- 
count of  the  bulbous  character  of  its  roots,  which  are 
very  near  the  surface,  will  not  stand  the  climate  of 
the  South,  except  in  favored  localities. 

Orchard  Grass. — This  grass  will  grow  upon  almost 
any  soil  which  is  not  swampy.  It  may  be  sown  in 
spring,  with  clover,  which  it  eradicates  after  one  or 
two  seasons.  It  has  a  very  strong  root,  and  is  not 
easily  overcome  by  other  grasses ;  it  is,  hence,  suitable 
for  lots  designed  to  be  kept  in  grass  a  long  time.  It 
starts  early  in  spring,  and  continues  green  quite  late 
in  autum,  and  is,  therefore,  valuable  for  early  and 
late  pastures.  As  a  hay  crop,  it  does  not  hold  a  high 
place.  When  harvested  for  hay,  it  should  be  cut  in 
full  bloom;  because  the  hay  has  then  the  highest 
value. 

Herd's  Grass. — Sometimes  called  "  red  top,"  thrives 
well  in  situations  suited  for  it,  which  can  hardly  be 
too  Avet.  It  will  succeed  even  on  white,  pipe  clay 
land.  It  does  not  compare  with  other  grasses  as  a 
pasture,  but  makes  excellent  hay. 

Irish  Velvet  Grass.—"  Irish  velvet,"  is  the  name  by 
which  this  grass  is  known  in  the  middle  part  of  Mis- 
sissippi. It  is  sometimes  called  "ivhite  top.''  It  will 
grow  on  almost  any  land ;  and  on  soil  of  good  quality 
and  moderately  moist,  will  grow  to  the  height  of 
two  and  a  half  to  three  and  a  half  feet.  Like  clover, 
it  is  a  biennial ;  but  by  plowing  a  crop  under  every 
third  year,  will  keep  possession  of  the  land  for 
several  years.  This  is  a  soft,  velvety  grass,  and 
would  make  excellent  hay,  if  cut  just  when  shedding 
its  flowers.  For  pastures,  there  is  no  grass  superior 


116  WALL'S   MANUAL 

to  it,  as  it  remains  green  the  whole  winter  in  the  lati- 
tude of  middle  Mississippi. 

^espedeza  Striata. — This  grass,  or  wild  clover,  comes 
up  very  early  in  the  spring  (latter  part  of  February), 
from  seeds  matured  the  previous  year — all  the  old 
plants  die  with  the  first  heavy  frosts  of  winter. 
Being  a  summer  plant,  it  would  grow  almost  any- 
where in  the  South ;  we  have  heard  of  its  taking 
foothold  from  Mississippi  to  Virginia.  Stock  will 
eat,  but  do  not  seem  to  be  especially  fond  of  it, — 
will  generally  eat  grass  in  preference,  where  the  two 
are  side  by  side.  It  is  a  very  hardy  plant  through- 
out the  South  ;  grows  well  under  pines,  in  old  fields, 
and  upon  very  poor  land,  contending  very  success- 
fully with  the  Bermuda  and  broom-sedge;  stands 
drought  well,  and  springs  up  again  very  rapidly  after 
rain.  In  rich  lands  and  in  bottoms,  when  not  grazed, 
it  grows  high  enough  to  be  cut  for  hay,  and  is  said 
to  make  a  very  good  article.  The  value  of  this  plant 
will  be  found,  we  think,  in  its  taking  possession  of 
old,  worn  out  land,  and  restoring,  more  or  less,  its 
fertility.  It  has  none  of  the  character  of  a  "pest" — - 
can  be  eradicated  whenever  desired. — Southern  Culti* 
vator,  April,  1869. 

PAS  T  U  R  ES. 

The  proper  care  of  pasture  lands,  is  too  much  over, 
looked  by  many  farmers  at  the  South.  Worthless 
briars  and  weeds  often  occupy  the  very  best  land, 
where  a  little  timely  care  and  attention  would  have 
secured  a  rich,  green  sod  of  sweet  and  nutritious 
grass. 

In.  those  sections  of  country  where  the  perennial 


OP    AGRICULTURE.  117 

glasses  will  not  thrive,  more  attention  should  be 
given  to  the  introduction  of  annuals  and  biennials,  to 
be  cut  for  hay.  The  annual  meadow-grass,  the  crop- 
grass,  and  biennial  rye- grass,  have  been  cultivated 
where  those  of  a  more  permanent  character  will  not 
take  root.  The  different  varieties  of  millet,  oats  cut 
in  full  bloom,  and  corn  sown  broad- cast,  all  make 
good  substitutes  for  hay. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

Every  farmer  should  make  repeated  experiments 
on  his  own  lands,  with  various  kinds  of  grass,  that 
he  may  determine  which  are  best  adapted  to  his  soil. 
Then  it  should  be  an  established  rule  : 

1.  Never  to  allow  a  field  to  be  out  of  clover,  or  some 
kind  of  grass,  when  it  is  not  occupied  by  other  crops. 

2.  Never  to  miss  an  opportunity  of  plowing  under 
clover,    or   grass  sod.       It   is  the  cheapest  wray  of 
enriching  the  soil. 


CHAPTER  XV L 

THE   TOBACCO    CROP. 

The  following  account  of  this  subject  is  the  result 
of  the  writer's  personal  experience  and  observation 
on  the  best  methods  pursued  by  some  of  the  most 
successful  planters  in  Virginia,  North  Carolina  and 
Kentucky. 

CLIMATE. 

Tobacco  requires  a  long  summer  season  to  bring  it 
to  maturity;  Hence,  so  far  as  our  own  country  is 


118  WALL'S   MANUAL 

concerned,  the  best  tobacco  can  be  cultivated  only  ill 
the  Southern  States.  Elevation  has  an  influence 
somewhat  similar  to  increase  of  latitude*  This 
makes  the  cultivation  of  tobacco  Uncertain  in  the 
nigh  and  mountainous  parts  of  Western  Virginia ; 
while  the  like  risk  is  not  felt  in  the  same  latitude 
farther  east,  where  the  elevation  is  not  so  great, 

A  variety,  called  the  "  Connecticut  seed  leaf,"  is 
Cultivated  with  great  success  in  the  New  England. 
States,  and  at  present  commands  a  good  price.  It 
requires  a  shorter  season  than  the  kinds  cultivated 
farther  South. 

SOIL, 

Tobacco  will  grow  upon  almost  any  good  soil,  when 
well  prepared  by  thorough  tillage,  but  the  best 
adapted  to  its  culture  is  a  rich,  dry  loam,  new 
cleared  and  brought  into  cultivation.  Although  the 
light  clay  and  sand  loams,  well  manured,  are  the  most 
reliable  for  making  the  finest  qualities  of  tobacco, 
yet  the  clay  soils  produce  excellent  crops,  but  require 
free  applications  of  rich  organic  manures  to  render 
them  sufficiently  porous.  The  sandy  loam,  which 
has  been  drifted  down  the  mountain  gorges  of  the 
Blue  Hidge,  is  the  best  adapted  to  the  growth  of 
tobacco.  The  stiff  clay  lands  of  the  Valley  of  Vir- 
ginia and  of  Kentucky  produce  a  large  leaf,  strong 
shipping  tobacco,  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
deep  loams  of  Missouri,  Illinois  and  Indiana. 

VARIETIES, 

"  Owing  to  the  great  diversity  of  climate  and  soil 
in  Virginia,  a  corresponding  change  is  produced  in 
the  grades  of  tobacco  raised  throughout  the  State, 


OF    AGRICULTURE.  119 

yet  she  produces  more  valuable  tobacco  than  any 
other  State  in  or  out  of  the  Union,"  The  Orinoco 
and  the  Prior,  for  manufacturing,  and  the  white  stem, 
and  big  Frederick  for  shipping,  are  the  most  profita- 
ble to  the  planter,  of  all  the  various  kinds  raised. 
Having  had  twenty  years'  experience  in  cultivating 
and  manufacturing,  and  the  last  five  years  in  selling 
the  article,  I  am  clearly  of  the  opinion  that,  on  all 
lands  suitable,  the  Orinoco  is  decidedly  the  best  for 
manufacturing,  from  the  fact  that  it  is  the  only  kind 
sweet  by  nature,  if  ripe.  It  should  be  sun-cured,  or 
as  much  so  as  the  season  and  circumstances  will 
admit.  If  thoroughly  ripe,  it  is  much  easier  to  bo 
cured  of  the  right  color,  and  it  stands  manufacturing 
better.  If  cut  before  being  ripe,  it  chews  bitter,  its 
color  is  forced,  and  it  will  not  hold  it. 

The  Prior  is  a  good  kind  to  cultivate  on  mountain- 
ous lands,  as  it  stands  the  wind  better  than  any 
other  kind,  being  tough.  For  shipping  purposes,  I 
give  the  preference  to  the  "White  Stein,"  It  can  be 
grown  large,  and  rich,  is  smooth,  and  tough  when 
cured,  and  loses  less  in  weight  in  curing  than  any 
other  kind."— "FT.  H.  Brown,  So.  Planter,  Jan.  1859. 

PLANT     BEDS. 

The  climate,  the  soil,  and  variety  to  be  culti- 
vated being  favorably  determined,  the  first,  and 
most  important  thing  to  be  done,  is  to  secure  an 
abundance  of  plants.  To  do  this,  the  planter  must 
look  well  to  the  preparation  of  his  plant-beds.  Of 
these  he  should  have  several,  sown  at  different  times, 
or  ohe  large  one,  divided  into  several  parts,  to  be 
sown  at  different  times.  To  meet  all  contingencies 


120  WALL'S    MANUAL 

that  may  arise,  and  still  secure  an  abundance  of 
plants,  enough  ground  should  be  sown  to  produce 
(if  all  portions  do  well)  a  large  excess  over  what  the 
crop  to  be  raised  will  require. 

PREPARATION     OF     BEDS. 

The  general  practice  is  to  burn  the  surface  of  the 
beds  before  planting.  A  warm  and  dry  locality, 
exposed  to  the'  sun,  and  well  protected  against  cold 
winds,  is  most  suitable.  A  southern,  or  southeastern 
exposure,  should  be  selected,  if  possible,  having  a 
loose,  rich  soil.  It  should  be  cleared  of  all  roots, 
stones,  and  everything  that  might  interfere  with  a 
proper  tillage  of  the  surface,  or  with  the  growth  of 
the  plants. 

The  burning  process  is  then  conducted  by  covering 
the  bed,  with  logs  and  brush  previously  collected, 
entirely,  or  in  part,  and  setting  fire  to  them,  at  a 
time  when  they  are  dry  enough  to  burn  freely.  The 
fuel  should  not  be  allowed  to  lie  flat  on  the  ground 
while  burning,  but  should  be  placed  upon  cross  logs, 
beneath  it.  The  whole  bed  need  not  be  covered  with 
fuel  at  one  time ;  because,  when  one  portion  has  been 
subjected  to  the  fire  for  an  hour  or  two,  the  burning 
fuel  may  be  removed  to  another  portion,  and  thus 
the  several  parts  be  burnt  in  succession.*  Some  im- 
portant effects  are  produced  by  the  wasting  process. 
In  the  first  place,  any  seeds  of  grass,  etc.,  which  may 
be  in  the  soil,  are  partially  or  entirely  destroyed ; 
and,  secondly,  the  condition  of  the  soil  is  improved 
by  burning,  and  by  the  quantity  of  ashes  left  upon 
it,  Beds  should  generally  be  burnt  just  before  they 
are  sown;  though,  in  some  soils,  it  is  better  to  burn 
and  expose  to  frost  a  few  weeks  before  planting. 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  121 

SOWING     THE     SEED. 

As  soon  as  the  surface  of  the  bed  is  cool  enough, 
after  burning,  guano,  or  some  finely  pulverized 
manure,  rich  in  ammonia,  and  clear  from  seeds 
of  every  kind,  should  be  freely  applied,  and  the 
surface  finely  chopped  over  with  the  hoe,  and 
smoothly  raked.  It  will  then  be  ready  for  the  seed. 
About  two  tablespoonfuls  of  seed  for  every  one 
hundred  square  yards  will  be  sufficient,  and  not  too 
much.  The  seed  are  mixed  with  old  ashes,  and,  to 
sow  them  regularly,  it  is  best  to  sow  one- half  over 
the  bed,  and  the  other  half  across  the  first  sowing 
It  is  then  well  trodden,  and  thickly  covered  with 
brush. 

The  object  of  the  covering  is  to  protect  the  young 
and  tender  plants  against  frost  and  sudden  changes 
of  weather,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  admit  the  air 
and  light,  and  heat  of  the  sun.  The  covering  is 
removed  when  there  is  no  longer  danger  from  frost. 
One  bed  should  be  sown  in  winter,  and  the  others 
early  in  the  spring,  to  multiply  the  chances  for  an 
early  supply  of  plants. 

The  fly  is  the  great  enemy  of  plant-beds.  Various 
remedies  have  been  tried  for  this  evil.  No  remedy 
has  been  found  better  than  the  frequent  application 
of  guano  and  plaster,  during  the  growth  of  the 
young  plants,  which  has  the  effect  of  pushing  them 
forward,  so  that  they  spring  up  rapidly,  in  spite  of 
the  fly. 

All  weeds  and  grass  should  bo  pulled  out  of  plant- 
beds,as  soon  as  they  appear. 


122  WALL'S    MANUAL 

PREPARATION    OP    SOIL    FOR    TOBACCO. 

This  is  a  point  of  the  very  first  importance  in 
making  a  crop  of  tobacco.  The  soil  must  be  rich  and 
mellow.  New  land  is  generally  best  for  tobacco.  But 
in  the  best  tobacco- growing  sections,  the  land  is 
nearly  all  cleared,  except  so  much  as  is  required  to 
be  kept  in  timber  for  fencing  and  fuel. 

The  preparation  of  the  old  land  is,  therefore, 
the  matter  of  importance.  Tobacco  requires  an 
abundant  supply  of  ammonia,  as  well  as  mineral 
matter,  especially  lime  and  potash.  Hence,  guano 
and  rich  stable  and  hog-pen  manures,  lime,  plaster, 
and  the  phosphates,  are  all  valuable  fertilizers  for 
this  crop.  It  has  been  shown  that  ammonia  is  not 
generally  abundant  in  soils  which  have  been 
frequently  cultivated  without  manures;  hence,  old 
lands  require  an  application  of  some  form  of 
ammonia-producing  manure  to  secure  a  good  crop 
of  tobacco. 

A  good  clover  or  pea  crop  may  be  plowed  down 
in  the  fall,  and  manured  well  and  plowed  again  in 
the  spring,  with  subsoiling,  when  the  land  requires  it. 
If  the  manure  is  not  abundant,  some  guano  should 
be  mixed  with  it,  and  a  small  quantity  will  then 
answer  the  purpose.  All  wet  lands  must  be  well 
drained  for  tobacco. 

When  artificial  fertilizers  are  applied  to  this  crop, 
they  should  be  sown  as  soon  as  we  begin  to  bed  up 
the  land  to  plant.  Lay  off  the  tobacco  field  as  if  to 
sow  wheat,  and  sow  guano,  plaster,  and  salt,  at  the 
rate  of  two  hundred  pounds  of  Peruvian  guano,  one 
hundred  pounds  of  phosphate  of  lime,  one  hundred 


o ft   AGRICULTURE.  123 

pounds  of  plaster,  and  one  hundred  pounds  of  salt 
per  acre.  This  application,  upon .  fair  land,  will 
produce  from  one  thousand  to  twelve  hundred 
pounds  of  good  tobacco  to  the  acre.  The  manipu- 
lated manure  should  be  sown  just  before  the  plows 
which  are  bedding  up  to  the  land,  so  that  all  can  be 
bedded  in  every  day,  or  the  ammonia  of  the  guano 
may  escape. 

The  beds,  or  rows,  should  be  from  three  and  a  half 
to  four  feet  apart,  according  to  the  character  of  the 
land,  and  the  plants  set  three  feet  apart  in  the  row, 
This  will  give  about  four  thousand  five  hundred 
plants  to  the  acre. 

PLANTING. 

The  season  for  planting  in  Virginia,  is  from  the 
15th  of  May  to  the  25th  of  June,  and  even  as  late  as 
the  4th  of  July.  A  careful  hand  should  draw  the 
plants  from  the  bed,  which  can  be  done  with  the 
hand  alone,  as  it  is  very  important  to  guard  against 
bruising  either  the  top  or  the  roots  of  the  young 
plant. 

Some  of  the  weaker  hands  take  the  plants  in  baskets3 
and  following  those  engaged  in  flattening  the  hills  or 
beds,  drop  a  plant  to  each  hill,  while  others  follow 
with  sharpened  pegs,  with  which  they  make  holes  in 
the  center  of  the  hills  to  receive  the  roots.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  have  the  root  extend  straight 
downward  in.  the  hole,  and  not  doubled  back  upon 
itself;  it  is  then  more  certain  to  grow.  After  the 
root  has  been  inserted  in  the  hill,  the  soil  is  pressed 
firmly  around  it.  Of  course,  setting  out  plants  can 
only  be  done  when  there  is  a  good  season  in  the  laud. 


124  WALL'S   MANUAL 

CULTURE. 

The  two  leading  objects  to  be  kept  in  view  in  the 
culture  of  tobacco,  are  the  same  as  those  mentioned 
in  the  culture  of  corn,  viz. :  first,  all  weeds  and  grass 
must  be  kept  down;  second,  the  ground  must  be  kept 
mellow  and  well  aired,  The  culture  should  commence 
as  soon  after  planting  as  possible,  and  kept  up 
constantly  until  the  plants  are  too  large  for  its  con- 
tinuance* Within  a  week  or  two  after  planting,  the 
soil  on  the  surface  of  the  hills  may  become  crusted,  and 
grass  and  weeds  begin  to  make  their  first  appearance* 
In  either  case,  the  hoes  should  be  used,  to  scrape  down 
the  surface  of  the  hills,  A  clean,  loose  suface  will 
thus  be  formed  around  the  plant.  This  should  be 
followed  by  a  deep  plowing,  which  should  be  made 
so  close  to  the  hills  as  to  cut  down  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  ridge,  the  dirt  being  thrown  from  the 
plant  to  the  middle  of  the  row.  By  a  subsequent 
plowing,  the  soil  (as  soon  as  possible),  should  be 
thrown  up  again  to  the  plants,  and  the  hills  dressed 
up  with  the  hoes,  By  all  the  other  plowings  the 
soil  should  be  thrown  to  the  plant,  and  the  ground 
kept  loose  and  mellow  until  the  plant  becomes  too 
large  to  work  with  a  plow, 

PRIMING   AND    TOPPING. 

When  the  plant  has  grown  to  the  height  of  two  or 
three  feet  around  bud  or  " button"  will  make  its 
appearance  in  the  center  of  the  plant.  This  is  the 
flower  bud.  At  this  period  some  of  the  lower  leaves 
must  be  pulled  off,  so  as  to  leave  the  stalk  naked  for 
five  or  six  inches  above  the  ground.  This  is  called 
"  priming,"  At  the  same  time  the  priming  is  done, 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  125 

the  flower  bud  is  nipped  with  the  thumb  and  finger. 
If  a  plant  is  large  enough,  it  may  be  topped  before 
the  "  button  "  makes  its  appearance  by  nipping  out 
the  leaf  bud.  There  is  a  great  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  the  proper  height  of  topping.  From  eight  to 
twenty  leaves  are  recommended — the  latter  for  manu- 
facturing. If  the  tobacco  is  pretty  forward,  and  the 
land  rich  at  first,  prime  off  just  enough  leaves  to 
hill  up  the  tobacco  well,  and  top  to  twelve  or  fourteen 
leaves.  Continue  to  top  to  twelve  leaves  until  the 
1st  of  August,  then  top  to  ten  leaves  until  the  middle 
of  August,  and  from  that  time  until  the  1st  of 
September  top  to  eight,  and  afterwards  to  six.  Soon 
after  the  topping  and  priming  is  done,  then  comes 
the  "  suckering "  and  "worming;"  the  buds  at  the 
base  of  the  leaves  begin  to  grow  rapidly,  if  left  alone, 
would  form  branches  of  the  main  stalk.  They  are 
called  "  suckers,"  and  must  be  broken  out  as  soon  as 
they  are  large  enough  to  be  caught  with  the  thumb 
and  forefinger.  This  process  is  repeated  from  time 
to  time,  as  the  new  suckers  make  their  appearance. 
Meantime  the  tobacco  or  green  worm  will  have  com- 
menced its  ravages,  and  must  be  carefully  picked  off 
and  destroyed,  otherwise  it  will  greatly  disfigure 
and  greatly  injure  the  crop.  The  philosophy  of 
priming,  topping  and  suckering  is  easily  understood. 
All  parts  of  the  plant  are  designed  to  aid  and  mature 
its  growth  for  the  production  of  seed.  As  the  period 
approaches  for  maturing  the  seeds,  nearly  all  the 
vital  energy  seems  to  be  directed  toward  and 

O«/ 

.  expended  upon  them.  If  the  "  button  "  is  removed 
all  the  vigor  of  the  plant  is  thrown  into  the  leaves  and 
suckers,  and  the  suckers  being  removed,  the  vigor  of 


12G  WALL'S    MANUAL 

the  plant  is  concentrated  in  the  remaining  leaves, 
By  priming  the  air  is  admitted  to  the  middle  leaves 
of  the  plant,  and  at  the  same  time  the  plant  can  be 
hilled  up  to  better  advantage. 

CUTTING. 

The  maturity  of  the  plant,  and  consequent  fitness 
for  cutting,  is  indicated  by  the  points  and  edges  of 
the  leaves  curling  downward,  the  leaf  becoming 
thick  and  brittle,  and  its  surface  assuming  a  yellowish, 
spotted  appearance.  At  this  stage  the  plants  con- 
tain more  of  the  ingredients  which  afterward  give 
value  to  them  than  at  any  other  period,  cither  earlier 
or  later.  It  should  then  be  cut,  and  not  till  then, 
unless  it  is  becoming  fired,  or  there  is  immediate 
danger  of  ft-ost.  The  cutting  consists  in  splitting 
the  stalk  with  a  sharp,  thin-bladed  knife,  down 
nearly  to  the  lowest  leaf,  and  then  cutting  it  off 
below  this  leaf.  As  the  plants  are  cut  they  are 
inserted  between  the  hills,  and  allowed  to  remain  in 
that  position  a  few  hours,  until  they  are  sufficiently 
wilted  to  be  handled  without  being  broken.  They 
are  then  collected  and  placed  (eight  or  ten)  together 
upon  sticks,  and  hung  on  scaffolds  in  the  open  air,  or 
upon  the  tier  poles  in  the  tobacco  barn. 

CURING. 

The  process  of  curing,  is  a  matter  of  the  highest 
importance.  On  it  depends,  to  a  great  extent,  the 
market  value  of  the  crop.  It  should,  therefore,  be 
attended  to  with  great  care.  The  modes  adopted 
vary  somewhat  with  the  end  for  which  the  crop  is 
designed. 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  127 

Tobacco,  for  manufacturing  purposes,  should  bo 
exposed  to  the  air  on  scaffolds ;  and,  if  ripe  and  sun 
cured,  it  will  have  that  sweet  aromatic  flavor  so 
peculiar  to  good  tobacco.  After  cutting,  it  should  be 
carried  to  the  scaffolds  and  hung  (without  touching 
the  ground)  about  eight  plants  on  a  stick,  and  closed 
on  the  poles  for  the  purpose  of  sweating;  by  this 
process  the  green  color  is  expelled,  and  the  tobacco 
becomes  yellow.  It  should  then  be  removed  to  the 
barn,  and  be  fully  cured  by  fire,  either  of  charcoal 
or  flues. 

For  "shipping  purposes,"  the  tobacco  may  be 
hauled  to  the  barn  as  soon  as  wilted,  and  the  process 
of  curing  commenced  immediately,  while  the  plant  is 
still  green  ;  this  gives  the  tobacco  a  dark,  rich  color, 
so  popular  in  the  English  and  German  markets.  The 
sticks  may  be  placed  about  six  inches  apart  in  the 
barn,  and  a  little  closer  in  the  roof  than  in  the  body 
of  the  barn. 

THE    CHEMISTRY     OP    CURING. 

During  the  process  of  curing,  tobacco  undergoes 
important  chemical  changes.  Its  peculiar  properties 
are,  owing  to  the  presence  of  several  remarkable  com- 
pounds, of  which  one  is  called  "nicotine,"  another 
"  nicotinanine,"  these  are  the  most  important.  "  Nico- 
tine" is  an  alkaline  substance,  and  has  the  form  of  an 
oily  liquid,  when  separated  from  the  other  compounds. 
In  its  concentrated  form,  it  is  a  deadly  poison.  The 
quantity  of  nicotine  varies  in  the  different  qualities 
of  tobacco  cultivated  in  the  same  region,  and  still 
moro  docs  it  vary  in  that  cultivated  in  different  coun- 
tries. The  Havana  has  about  two  per  cent,  of 


1 28  WALL 

nicotine,  hence  its  mildness.  Virginia  (best  manu- 
facturing) tobacco,  has  five  or  six  per  cent.,  while 
the  stronger  "  shipping  varieties"  have  about  seven 
per  cent.  Nicotianine,  is  a  more  volatile  substance 
than  nicotine,  and  is  more  odoriferous.  The  pleasant 
odor  of  good  tobacco  is  due  chiefly  to  this  compound. 
The  nicotianine  and  nicotine  do  not  exist  in  the  green 
leaf,  but  are  formed  during  the  curing  of  the  tobacco, 
from  substances  already  in  the  plant.  If  the  leaves 
arc  dried  very  rapidly,  these  compounds  are  not  fully 
formed  ;  and  if  the  heat  is  raised  too  high  in  firing, 
they  may  disappear  to  some  extent.  Hence,  the 
firing  should  be  commenced  at  a  low  temperature, 
which  can  be  gradually  increased,  and  may  be 
advantageously  suspended  at  night.  The  temperature 
should  never  rise  above  one  hundred  and  thirty 
degrees.  Curing  yellow  tobacco  with  charcoal,  a  high 
temperature  kept  up  day  and  night,  is  recommended, 
say,  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  one  hundred  and  sixty 
degrees. 

It  is  best  to  "fire"  all  grades  of  shipping  tobacco, 
and  to  cure  it  a  dark  nutmeg  color.  From  twenty- 
four  to  thirty- six  hours  after  cutting,  if  the  tobacco  is 
ripe — if  not,  thirty -six  to  forty- eight  hours,  according 
to  the  weather — seems  about  the  right  time  to 
commence  firing.  Begin  with  small  fires,  and  bring 
the  tobacco  to  a  proper  state,  and  then  increase  the 
fires. 

SHIPPING,     HANDLING,     ETC. 

After  the  tobacco  has  been  fully  cured,  the  next 
step  is  to  strip  the  leaves  from  the  stalks,  and  tie 
them  up  in  little  bundles  (hands),  to  be  pressed 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  129 

(prized)  into  hogsheads  for  market.  The  two  points 
to  be  attended  to  in  shipping  are,  first,  to  have  the 
tobacco  in  proper  "order;"  and,  secondly,  to  assort 
carefully,  so  as  to  separate  the  different  qualities. 
Tobacco  is  in  "  order,"  when  the  leaf  is  sufficiently 
moist  to  be  pliant,  and  yet  the  stem  dry  enough  to 
break  off  readily  from  the  stalks.  This  condition  can 
be  secured  only  in  the  beginning  of  a  spell  of  damp 
weather.  After  the  weather  has  continued  damp  for 
some  little  time,  the  moisture  penetrates  the  stems, 
as  well  as  the  thinner  part  of  the  leaves,  making 
them  too  tough  to  be  easily  broken  from  the  stalks, 
and  rendering  them  liable  to  mould  when  wrapped 
together,  or  when  the  tobacco  is  laid  down  "in  bulk.'1 
If  the  stems  have  thus  become  pliant,  the  tobacco  is 
in  "too  high  order,"  and  must  be  thoroughly  dried, 
and  allowed  to  come  in  order  again,  before  the  strip- 
ping can  be  done,  A  large  quantity  may  be  kept  in 
order  for  stripping,  by  packing  down  when  in  proper 
condition,  upon  an  elevated  platform  extending  along 
one  side  of  the  barn.  This  is  called  "  bulking.""  The 
leaves  of  the  plants  must  be  lapped  over  each  other 
in  the  middle  of  the  bulk,  the  but- end  of  the  stalks 
being  turned  outward.  The  whole  mass  must  then 
be  covered  with  straw  or  leaves,  which  will  preserve 
it  in  order,  until  it  can  be  conveniently  stripped, 
which  is  generally  at  times  when  the  weather  is 
unfavorable  for  out- door  work. 

The  business  of  assorting,  requires  both  care  and 
judgment.  It  should,  therefore,  be  the  business  of 
the  most  experienced  and  trustworthy  hands.  It  is 
accomplished  chiefly  during  the  process  of  stripping, 
but  may  be  made  more  complete,  by  the  hands 
6*' 


130  WALL'S    MANUAL 

engaged  in  tying,  attending  to  the  sorting  out  of 
such  leaves  ay  do  not  properly  belong  to  grades  upon 
which  they  are  engaged.  The  number  of  "  grades," 
or  qualities,  must  be  determined  by  the  purpose  for 
which  the  crop  is  designed.  Where  the  object  is  to 
make  the  dark  shipping  tobacco,  the  best  leaves  are 
assorted,  according  to  size  and  quality,  into  first  and 
second  quality  "  leaf;"  while  the  lower  leaves,  together 
with  others  that  may  be  injured  or  ragged,  form  first 
and  second  quality  of  "lugs." 

If  the  crop  is  designed  for  the  manufacturer,  the 
color j  as  well  as  the  quality,  must  be  taken  into 
account.  The  dark  and  yellow  colors,  must  be  first 
separated  into  two  general  classes,  and  each  of  these 
again  assorted,  according  to  their  several  qualities. 
So,  we  would  have  five  classes :  Yellow,  good  yellow, 
dark,  good  dark,  and  "  lugs.'1  When  the  assorting  and 
tying  have  been  completed,  the  bundles  should  be 
"  bulked  down,"  unless  the  stems  are  found  to  contain 
so  much  moisture  as  to  be  in  danger  of  moulding. 
It  should  then  be  hung  up  on  sticks,  and  thoroughly 
dried.  Then,  at  the  first  favorable  time  before  priz- 
ing, it  should  be  again  bulked  down.  The  bundles 
should  be  carefully  straightened  in  packing  down; 
and,  when  it  is  afterward  transferred  to  hogsheads, 
the  same,  or  still  greater  care  should  be  taken,  that 
every  leaf  be  straight,  and  in  its  proper  place.  The 
hogsheads  usually  contain  about  thirteen  or  fourteen 
hundred  pounds. 

The  price  of  tobacco  depends  very  much  upon  the 
'skill  with  which  it  has  been  cured,  and  the  care  bestowed 
upon  the  assorting,  tying,  and  subsequent  handling. 


OF    AGRICULTURE  131 


CHAP  TEE    XVII. 

CULTIVATION    OF    CUBA    TOBACCO. 

The  soil  for  the  Cuba  tobacco  ought  to  be  of  a  rich 
sandy  loam,  neither  too  high  nor  too  low — that  is, 
ground  capable  of  retaining  moisture.  The  more 
level,  the  better,  and,  if  possible,  well  protected  by 
margins.  For  raising  plants,  preparing  and  culti- 
vating the  land,  a  similar  process  may  be  adopted  as 
that  described  in  the  preceding  chapter  for  the  com- 
mon tobacco  crop  of  this  country.  When  the  plants 
have  acquired  twelve  or  fourteen  leaves,  and  are 
about  knee  high,  we  should  begin  to  top  them,  by 
nipping  off  the  bud,  with  the  aid  of  the  fingers  and 
thumb-nails,  taking  care  not  to  destroy  the  small 
leaves  immediately  'near  the  bud;  for,  if  the  land  is 
good  and  the  season  favorable,  those  very  small  top 
leaves  will,  in  a  short  time,  be  nearly  as  large,  and 
ripen  quite  as  soon  as  the  lower  ones,  whereby  two 
or  four  more  leaves  may  be  saved,  thus  obtaining 
from  sixteen  to  eighteen  leaves,  in  the  place  of  twelve 
or  fourteen,  which  is  the  general  average. 

The  topping  of  the  tobacco  plant  is  absolutely 
essential  in  order  to  promote  the  growth  and  to 
equalize  the  ripening  of  the  leaves ;  it  should  be  com- 
menced the  instant  the  bud  of  the  plant  shows  a 
disposition  to  go  to  seed,  and  be  immediately  followed 
by  removing  the  suckers  which  it  will  now  put  out 
at  every  leaf.  The  suckers  must  be  kept  down. 

The  Cuba  tobacco  plant  ought  never  to  be  cut 
before  it  comes  to  full  maturity,  which  is  known  by 
the  leaves  becoming  mottled,  coarse,  of  a  thick  texture 


132  WALL'S   MANUAL 

and  gummy  to  the  touch,  at  which  time  the  end  of 
the  leaf,  by  being  doubled,  will  break  short.  It  ought 
not  to  be  cut  just  after  a  rain,  as  the  leaves  have  then 
lost  their  gummy  feel ;  in  a  day  or  two  the  gum  will 
again  coat  the  surface  of  the  leaf. 

About  this  period  the  cultivator  is  apt  to  be  ren- 
dered anxious  by  the  fear  of  allowing  the  plants  to 
remain  too  long  in  the  field.  He  should  be  on  his 
guard,  not  to  destroy  the  quality  of  his  tobacco  by 
cutting  it  too  soon.  When  the  cutting  is  to  com- 
mence, there  should  be  procured  a  quantity  of  forked 
stakes,  set  upright,  with  a  pole,  or  rider,  sitting  on 
each  fork,  ready  to  support  the  tobacco  and  keep  it 
from  the  ground. 

The  plant  is  then  cut  obliquely,  even  with  the 
surface  of  the  ground ;  then,  Rafter  tying  two  stalks 
together,  they  are  gently  placed  across  the  riders  or 
poles  prepared  to  receive  them.  In  this  state  they 
are  allowed  to  remain  in  the  sun  or  open  air  until  the 
leaves  are  somewhat  wilted.  Than  place  as  many 
plants  on  each  pole  as  can  be  conveniently  carried, 
and  take  them  to  the  drying  house,  where  the  tobacco 
is  strung  off  on  frames  prepared  to  receive  it,  leaving 
a  small  space  between  the  two  plants,  that  air  may 
circulate  freely  among  them  and  promote  their  drying. 
As  the  drying  advances,  the  stalks  are  brought  closer 
to  each  other,  to  make  room  for  those  which  remain 
to  be  housed. 

In  drying  the  tobacco,  all  damp  air  should  be 
excluded,  nor  should  the  drying  be  hastened  by  the 
admission  of  high,  drying  winds.  This  process  is  to 
be  promoted  in  the  most  moderate  manner,  except  in 
rainy  seasons,  when  the  sooner  the  drying  is  effected 


OF    AGRICULTURE.  133 

the  better ;  for  it  is  a  plant  easily  affected  by  the 
changes  of  the  weather,  after  the  drying  commences. 
It  is  liable  to  mildew  in  damp  weather ;  that  is,  when 
the  leaf  changes  from  its  original  color  to  a  pale 
yellow  cast,  and  from  this,  by  parts,  to  an  even  brown. 

When  the  middle  stem  is  perfectly  dry,  it  can  be 
taken  down,  and  the  leaves  stripped  from  the  stalk 
and  put  in  bulk  to  sweat ;  that  is,  to  make  tobacco  of 
them.  The  leaves  are  to  be  stripped  from  the  stalk 
in  damp  or  cloudy  weather,  when  they  are  more 
easily  handled  and  the  separation  of  the  different 
qualities  rendered  more  easy.  The  good  leaves  are 
kept  to  themselves,  for  "ivrappers"  and  the  most 
defective  ones  for  "fillings." 

When  the  tobacco  is  put  in  bulk,  the  stems  of  the 
leaves  should  all  be  kept  in  one  direction,  to  facilitate 
the  tying  of  them  in  "hanks,"  afterward  making  the 
bulk  two  or  three  feet  high  and  of  proportionate 
width.  To  guard  against  the  leaves  becoming  over- 
heated, and  to  equalize  the  fermentation  or  "sweat- 
ing," after  the  first  twenty- four  hours  put  the  outside 
leaves  in  the  center,  and  those  in  the  center  to  the 
outside  of  the  bulk.  By  doing  this  once  or  twice, 
and  taking  care  to  cover  the  bulk  with  sheets  or 
blankets,  so  as  to  exclude  all  air  from  it,  and  leaving 
it  in  that  state  forty  days,  the  tobacco  acquires  an 
odor  strong  enough  to  produce  sneezing,  and  the  other 
qualities  of  cured  leaf.  The  process  of  curing  may 
then  be  considered  as  completed. 

Then  take  some  of  the  most  injured  leaves,  but  of 
the  best  quality,  and  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of 
totfacco  made,  and  place  them  in  clear  water;  there 
let  them  remain  until  they  rot,  which  they  will  do  in 


134  WALL'S    MANUAL 

about  eight  days.  Next,  break  open  your  bulks, 
spread  the  tobacco  with  the  stems  in  one  direction, 
and  dampen  it  with  this  water,  in  a  gentle  manner, 
in  order  that  it  may  not  soak  through  the  leaf,  for,  in 
that  case,  the  leaf  would  rot.  A  sponge  is  used  in 
Cuba  for  this  delicate  operation.  Then  tie  the  hanks 
of  from  twenty- five  to  thirty  leaves. 

This  being  done,  spread  the  hanks  in  the  tobacco 
house  for  about  twelve  hours  to  air,  in  order  that  the 
dampness  may  be  removed,  and  afterward  pack  them 
in  casks  or  barrels,  and  head  them  tight,  until  you 
wish  to  manufacture  them.  The  object  in  dampening 
the  tobacco  with  this  water  is  to  give  it  elasticity,  to 
promote  its  burning  free,  to  increase  its  fragrance,  to 
give  it  an  aromatic  smell,  and  to  keep  it  always  soft. 
This  is  the  great  secret  of  curing  tobacco  for  cigars,  as 
practiced  in  Cuba. 

We  have  here  (St.  Augustine,  Florida)  three  cut- 
tings from  the  original  plant.  The  last  will  be  of 
rather  weak  quality,  but  which  will  be  agreeable  to 
those  who  confine  their  smoking  to  weak  tobacco.  In 
the  "ratooning"  of  the  plant,  only  one  sprout  ought 
to  be  left ;  all  the  other  sprouts  should  be  broken  off 
and  destroyed. 

The  houses  necessary  for  curing  this  tobacco  ought 
to  be  roomy,  with  a  passage- way  running  through 
the  center,  from  one  extremity  of  the  building  to 
the  other,  and  pierced  on  both  sides  with  a  sufficient 
number  of  doors  and  windows  to  make  them  per- 
fectly airy. 

In  order  to  obtain  vigorous  plants,  the  seed  ought 
to  be  procured  from  the  original  stalk,  and  not  from 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  135 

the  "ratoons,"  by  allowing  some  of  them  to  go  to 
seed  for  the  express  purpose.  Every  three  or  four 
years  we  should  send  to  Cuba  for  fresh  seed. — [Joseph 
M.  Hernadez,  St.  Augustine,  Florida. 


CHAP  TEE    XVIII. 

THE    POTATO    CROP. 

The  Irish,  or  common  potato,  will  grow  upon 
almost  any  soil,  with  good  management  and  a 
favorable  season ;  but  a  loose,  moist,  and  cool  soil,  is 
most  suitable.  Well- drained  swamps  often  produce 
the  potato  with  great  luxuriance.  North-lying 
slopes,  of  loose,  rich  mould,  gravelly,  and  sandy 
loams,  are  all  favorable  to  the  production  of  this 
important  crop. 

P  R  EP A  RAT ION. 

The  ground  should  be  prepared  by  a  thorough 
plowing  in  the  autumn  or  winter.  In  the  spring,  at 
the  time  selected  for  planting,  manure  should  be 
applied,  either  immediately,  or  before  planting,  or 
in  the  drill  with  the  potatoes.  If  manure  is  not 
abundant,  it  is  more  economical  to  use  it  in  the  drill 
for  covering  the  potatoes  at  the  time  of  planting. 

M  ANURES. 

The  best  manure  for  potatoes  is  fresh  stable,  or 
hog-pen  scrapings,  mixed  with  a  large  portion  of 
br*oken  straw,  leaves,  or  other  litter.  From  ten  to 
twenty  wagon  loads  per  acre,  as  the  soil  is  more  or 


130  WALL'S    MANUAL 

less  fertile,  should  be  applied,  in  case  it  is  spread  on 
the  surface.  A  smaller  quantity  will  be  sufficient,  if 
applied  in  the  drill.  When  only  a  small  quantity  of 
this  kind  of  manure  can  be  collected,  a  little  Peruvian 
guano  may  be  mixed  with  it  (one  hundred  pounds), 
very  much  to  the  advantage  of  the  crop.  Cotton 
seed  is  one  of  the  best  manures  for  this  crop. 

PLANTING. 

In  our  Southern  climate,  the  great  enemy  of  the 
potato  crop,  is  the  hot  sun,  and,  particularly,  if 
accompanied  by  drought.  Our  planting  should, 
therefore,  have  special  reference  to  protection 
against  heat  and  drought.  The  best  means  of 
accomplishing  this  is  mulching.  After  preparing  the 
ground,  and  planting  the  potatoes  in  the  best  manner, 
the  whole  surface  should  be  covered  to  the  depth  of 
eight  or  ten  inches,  with  broken  straw,  forest  leaves, 
or  some  other  litter.  This  covering  (mulching) 
protects  the  ground  against  the  severe  heat  of  the 
sun,  prevents  rapid  evaporation,  and  secures  both  a 
cool  and  moist  soil  Besides  this,  it  prevents  the 
growth  of  weeds,  while  the  potato  vines  rapidly  find 
their  way  to  the  surface.  This  plan  will  require  no 
after  culture,  except  to  pull  up  a  few  weeds  which 
may  get  through  the  mulching. 

CULTURE. 

If  the  method  of  planting  is  adopted  which 
requires  future  culture,  all  plowing  and  hoeing 
should  be  done  in  the  early  stage  of  growth.  No 
working  which  will  disturb  the  roots,  should  be  done 
after  the  flower- buds  begin  to  make  their  appearance. 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  137 

If  weeds  still  prove  troublesome,  they  may  be 
removed  by  shallow  hoeing,  or  by  hand.  Deep 
covering  at  time  of  planting,  or  heavy  earthing  in 
future  culture,  are  injurious  to  the  crop,  especially  in 
heavy  clay  soils,  or  in  damp  localities. 

The  flower-buds  of  the  potato  should  be  plucked 
off  as  soon  as  they  make  their  appearance.  The 
nutrition,  expended  in  the  production  of  seeds,  is 
almost  identical  in  kind,  with  that  which  promotes 
the  growth  of  the  potato.  Hence,  if  seeds  are 
produced,  it  must  be  at  the  expense  of  food,  which 
would  otherwise  nourish  the  tubers. 

D  I  G  G  I  N  O  . 

As  soon  as  the  tops  of  the  potato  die,  it  indicates 
full  maturity  of  the  tubers,  and  the  crop  should  then 
be  gathered.  For  if  the  weather  is  warm  and  moist, 
there  is  danger  of  second  growth,  which  makes  the 
potato  watery.  After  being  dug,  they  should  be 
dried  in  the  open  air,  and  laid  away  in  the  earth  ;  a 
dry,  elevated  spot  should  be  selected  for  this  purpose, 
and  so  prepared  that  the  water  cannot  collect  in  the 
bottom  of  the  bed.  They  should  not  be  buried  until 
near  the  beginning  of  winter,  as  there  will  then  bo 
little  danger  of  heating,  and  consequent  rotting, 
under  the  influence  of  warm  weather. 

Before  the  weather  becomes  warm  enough  in  the 
spring  for  the  sprouting  of  the  tubers  to  commence, 
they  should  be  taken  up,  and  returned  to  the  cool, 
dry  cellar.  If  they  are  damp  when  taken  from  the 
ground,  they  should  be  spread  out  in  the  sunshine  for 
a  few  hours.  They  may  be  kept  in  good  condition 
for  eating  much  longer,  by  being  spread  on  a  dry 


138  W  A  L  L  '  8     M  A  N  U  A  L 

floor,  in  a  cool  situation,  than  in  any  other  way — the 
great  object  being  to  prevent  germination, 

SELECTIONS  FOR  PLANTING. 

Those  designed  for  seed  may  be  conveniently 
selected,  either  at  the  time  the  crop  is  laid  up  in  the 
fall,  or  when  spread  out  in  tho  spring.  For  planting, 
tubers  of  medium  size  are  best,  because  their  buds 
(eyes)  are  generally  more  vigorous  than  those  very 
large  or  very  small.  The  object  of  planting  this,  as 
well  as  other  crops,  should  be  to  secure  plants  which 
are  healthy  and  vigorous  at  the  beginning  of  their 
growth.  For  early  planting,  the  "Goodrich"  and 
"  Early  Rose "  are  csteehied  the  best.  For  late 
planting,  the  "  Long  John  "  and  "  Long  Red  "  are 
probably  the  best,  for  the  Southern  States. 

DEGENERATING. 

Potatoes  are  found  to  degenerate  in  the  hands  of 
many  farmers,  and  hence  an  impression  prevails 
extensively,  that  the  same  variety  naturally  runs  out, 
when  cultivated  in  the  same  soil  and  climate,  for 
several  successive  years.  This  is  true,  to  some 
extent,  if  it  is  planted  too  frequently  on  tlje  same 
land,  even  when  the  best  modes  of  culture  are 
pursued.  It  is  also  true,  when  the  little,  worthless 
potatoes  are  selected  for  seed  year  aftej*  year.  Corn, 
wheat,  rye,  and  every  other  kind  of  crop,  degenerates 
under  similar  treatment. 

Let  the  farmer  try  the  plans  above  given  carefully, 
for  a  few  years  in  succession,  and  it  is  most  probable 
that  he  will  find  the  quality  of  his  crop  advancing 
gradually,  instead  of  retrograding.  Such,  at  least, 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  139 

has  been  the  writer's  experience,  in  the  cultivation  of 
this  important  crop. 

THE    SWEET    POTATO. 

The  Carolina  or  sweet  potato,  to  the  successful 
cultivation  of  which  the  climate  and  soil  of  the 
South  is  so  admirably  adapted,  yielding,  as  it  does, 
from  one  hundred  to  four  hundred  bushels  to  the 
acre,  at  comparatively  litte  cost,  and  being  so  highly 
nutritious  to  man  and  beast,  claim  for  it  the  first 
place  among  the  crops  we  should  cultivate.  The 
intelligent  and  prudent  farmer,  anticipating  the  short- 
ness of  the  corn  crop  consequent  upon  droughts  or 
other  adverse  circumstances,  will  readily  turn  his 
attention  also  to  this  crop,  and  others,  which  like  it, 
come  to  maturity  at  a  different  time.  For  this  crop, 
sandy  land  having  a  good  clay  subsoil,  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred. The  red  and  the  yam  potato  are  in  the 
highest  esteem.  As  soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of  the 
ground  in  the  spring,  the  potatoes  should  be  bedded 
out  to  obtain  slips ;  the  earlier  this  is  done  the 
better,  as  it  is  very  important  to  an  abundant  supply 
of  slips  at  the  first  planting. 

PREPARATION    OF     LAND    FOR    PLANTING. 

Lay  off  rows  three  and  a  half  to  four  feet  apart, 
deepen  the  furrows  with  the  turn  plow,  throwing 
out  each  way,  followed  by  a  bulltongue  or  coulter, 
running  deep.  Place  in  the  trench  thus  formed  half 
rotted  straw  or  leaves,  or  any  rough  compost,  and  in 
stiff  lands,  corn  cobs  and  the  rakings  of  the  wood 
yard — the  larger  the  chips  the  better.  This  is  to 
loosen  the  soil  .and  make  room  for  air,  which,  like 
moisture,  is  highly  essential  to  the  growth  of  this 


140  WALL'S    M  A  N  u  A  L 

tuber.  If  the  soil  needs  manure,  it  can  be  applied  at 
this  time,  in  some  concentrated  form,  fifty  pounds  of 
Peruvian  guano  and  fifty  pounds  of  bone  dust  would 
increase  the  crop  very  materially.  Then  bed  up  in 
the  usual  way  ;  just  before  planting  the  slips  the  beds 
should  be  "Hushed  up."  If  your  plants  in  the  bed 
are  large  enough,  the  best  time  to  set  them  out  is 
just  before  a  rain.  If  this  cannot  be  done  set  them 
out  when  there  is  a  good  season  in  the  ground. 
About  two  or  three  thorough  workings  will  make 
the  crop.  After  the  vines  commence  running,  they 
very  often  take  root  between  the  rows ;  they  must 
be  loosed  from  the  soil,  otherwise  numerous  tubers 
will  be  formed  in  every  direction,  much  to  the  injury 
of  the  main  crop. 

Sweet  potatoes  should  be  dug  before  they  become 
chilled  by  the  frosts.  They  should  not  be  allowed  to 
remain  long  in  the  sunshine,  but  be  deposited  as  soon 
as  it  can  be  made  convenient,  where  they  are  to 
remain,  and  covered  with  straw,  corn  stalks  or  other 
dry  litter.  Earth  may  now  be  leisurely  thrown  on 
in  such  way  and  in  such  quantity  as  to  prevent  the 
ingress  of  water.  A  hole  must  be  made  and  kept 
open  at  the  top,  which  should  be  sheltered  by  bark 
or  a  piece  of  board.  Another  method  of  banking 
which  has  been  tried  for  a  long  series  of  years,  and 
found  very  successful,  is  as  follows  :  Dig  a  ditch  of 
convenient  length,  two  feet  deep,  and  three  feet 
wride  on  high  and  dry  ground,  lay  in  a  thick  bed  of 
straw  for  bottom  and  sides,  fill  the  ditch  heaping 
with  potatoes,  cover  with  straw,  and  then  with  earth, 
leaving  air  holes  at  top,  at  intervals  of  three  feet. 
Upon  a  ridge-pole  placed  upon  forks,  and  nearly 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  141 

touching  the  top  of  the  bank,  make  a  shelter  of 
clap- boards,  which  may  be  confined  down  by  billets 
of  wood. 

TURNIP   CROP. 

The  cultivation  of  the  turnip  as  an  esculent,  both 
for  animals  and  man,  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  it  is 
too  much  neglected  at  the  South. 

Selection  and  Preparation  of  the  Soil. — Turnips 
delight  in  a  loose  soil,  on  new  land,  in  which  they 
are  raised  to  the  greatest  perfection,  and  the  least 
risk.  It  has  been  proved  by  long  experience,  in  this 
country,  that  old  sod,  well  rotted,  or  newly  cleared 
land  recently  burnt  over,  produces  the  largest  and 
best  flavored  roots.  These  four  points  should  be 
carefully  attended  to  in  the  cultivation  of  turnips  : 
First — To  have  the  ground  in  a  finely  pluverized 
state.  Second — To  force  forward  the  young  plants 
into  the  rough  leaf,  in  order  to  secure  them  from  the 
attack  of  the  fly.  This  is  best  effected  by  sowing 
guano,  superphosphate  of  lime  or  other  stimulating 
manure  with  the  seed.  Third — To  have  the  ground 
clean  and  free  from  weeds  before  the  seed  are  sown, 
and  watching  the  growth  of  weeds  afterward,  and 
cutting  them  off  before  they  choke  the  crop. 
Fourth — If  sown  in  drills,  to  keep  the  ground  con- 
stantly loose  and  open  about  the  plants  by  stirring  it 
between  them  in  dry  weather. 

Choice  of  Seed. — New  seed  should  always  be  sown 
in  preference  to  old. 

Quantity  of  Seed. — The  quantity  of  seed  varies 
According  to  the  condition  of  the  soil  and  kind 
employed.  Say  from  one  to  four  pounds  to  the  acre. 

Uses. — Food  for  man  and  beast. 


142  WALL'S     M  A  N  U  A  L 


C  H  A  P  T  E  K  XIX. 

SORGHUM    CANES. 

The  soil  and  geographical  range  of  the  Chinese 
sugar  cane,  corresponds  nearly  with  that  of  Indian 
corn,  and  it  thrives  with  great  luxuriance  in  rich, 
bottom  lands,  or  in  moist,  loamy  soils,  well  manured. 
It  will  produce  a  fine  crop  on  dry  sandy,  or  gravely 
soils,  too  poor  to  give  good  crops  of  other  plants. 
On  the  latter  class  of  soils,  however,  it  has  proved 
more  profitable  to  the  cultivator,  where  there  had 
been  applied  a  moderate  quantity  of  guano,  super- 
phosphate of  lime,  and  plaster.  Say,  fifty  pounds  of 
Peruvian  guano,  fifty  pounds  of  superphosphate,  and 
one  hundred  pounds  of  plaster. 

This  plant  endures  cold  much  better  than  corn, 
and,  resists  without  injury,  slight  frosts  in  the  fall. 
It  will  also  stand  excessive  drought.  In  Virginia, 
and  other  Southern  States,  it  will  ripen  its  seeds  in 
October,  when  planted  by  the  20th  of  June.  At  the 
extreme  South,  it  may  be  planted  from  January  to 
July. 

The  cost  of  culture  of  this  plant,  does  not  differ 
essentialy  from  that  of  Indian  corn.  The  seeds 
require  to  be  planted  at  different  distances  apart, 
according  to  the  strength  of  the  soil.  On  light, 
moderately  rich  land,  it  succeeds  best  when  sown  in 
rows  or  drills,  three  feet  apart,  with  the  plants  a  foot 
assunder  in  the  drill;  but  011  rich  land,  it  has  been 
found  preferable  to  have  the  drills  four  or  five  feet 
assunder.  If  cultivated  exclusively  for  fodder,  and 
to  be  cut  green  for  stock,  the  seed  may  be  sown 


OF     AGllICULTl/liE.  43 

broadcast,  and  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  Indian 
corn,  when  grown  for  that  use.  . 

The  height  of  the  plant  varies  from  six  to  eighteen 
feet,  according  to  the  locality  and  the  condition  of 
the  soil;  the  stalks  ranging  from  half  an  inch  to  two 
inches  in  diameter.  The  weight  of  an  entire  crop  to 
an  acre,  when  green,  varies  from  ten  to  forty  tons, 
The  amount  of  seed  will  range  from  fifteen  to  sixty 
bushels  to  the  acre. 

During  the  earlier  stages  of  the  growth  of  this 
plant,  say  for  the  first  six  or  eight  weeks,  it  makes- 
but  little  progress,  except  in  penetrating  the  ground 
with  its  roots ;  it  then  grows  off  very  rapidly.  The 
period  of  its  growth,  varies  from  ninety  to  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  days ;  the  seeds  often  ripen  unequally 
in  the  same  field. 

The  yield  of  juice  from  well  trimmed  stalks,  is 
about  fifty  per  cent.  The  number  of  gallons  of  juice- 
required  to  make  a  gallon  of  syrup,  varies  from  five 
to  ten,  according  to  the  locality,  the  nature  of  the 
soil,  and  the  condition  and  the  maturity  of  the  canes. 
The  yield  of  syrup  per  acre,  is  from  one  hundred  to 
four  hundred  gallons.  The -amount  of  pure  alcohol 
procured  from  the  juice,  ranged  from  five  to  nine  per 
cent.  In  cases  where  the  plant  is  well  matured,  and 
grown  upon  warm,  light  soil,,  the  juice  will  yield  from 
thirteen  to  sixteen  per  cent,  of  dry,  sacharine  matter ; 
from  nine  to  eleven  per  cent,  of  which  will  be  well- 
defined,  crystalized  cane-sugar. 

A  very  palatable  bread  may  be  made  from  the  flour 
ground  from  the  seeds  of  this  plant.  By  accounts 
from  all  parts  of  the  country,  this  plant  is  universally 
admitted  to  be  a  loholesome,  nutritious,  and  economical 


144  WALL'S    MANUAL 

food  for  animals ;  all  parts  of  it  being  greedily  devoured 
'  in  the  green  or  dried  state,  by  horses,  cattle,  sheep, 
poultry  and  swine,  without  injurious  effects ;  the  two 
latter,  fattening  upon  the  seed,  equally  as  well  as 
upon  corn. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  SUGAR  AND  SYRUP  FROM 
THE  JUICE. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  'necessary  to  filter  the  juice 
of  the  plant,  as  it  comes  from  the  mill,  in  order  to 
remove  the  ^fibrous  matter  and  starch,  which  arc 
present  in  it  when  pressed  out.  A  bag  filter,  or  one 
made  of  a  blanket,  placed  in  a  basket,  will  answer 
this  purpose.  .Next,  we  have  to  add  a  sufficiency  of 
the  milk  of  lime  (that  is,  lime  slacked  and  mixed  with 
water)  to  the  juice,  to  render  it  slightly  alkaline,  as 
shown  by  changing  tumeric  paper  to  a  brown  color, 
or  reddened  litmus  paper  to  a  blue.  A  small  excess 
of  lime  is  not  injurious.  After  this  addition,  the 
juice  should  be  boiled,  say,  for  fifteen  minutes.  A 
thick,  greenish  scum  rapidly  collects  on  the  surface, 
which  is  removed  by  a  skimmer,  and  then  the  liquid 
should  again  be  filtered.  It  will  now  be  of  a  pale, 
straw  color,  and  ready  for  evaporation.  It  may  now 
be  boiled  down  rapidly,  to  about  half  its  original 
bulk,  after  which  the  fire  must  be  kept  low,  the 
evaporation  to  be  carried  on  with  great  caution, 
and  the  syrup  constantly  stirred,  to  prevent  its 
burning  at  the  bottom  of  the  kettle  or  evaporating 
pan.  Portions  of  the  syrup  is  to  be  taken  out  from 
time  to  time,  and  allowed  to  cool,  to  see  if  it  is  dense 
enough  to  crystalize.  It  should  be  as  dense  as  sugar- 
house  molasses  or  tar.  When  the  syrup  has  reached 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  145 

this  condition,  it  may  be  withdrawn  from  the 
evaporating  vessel,  and  be  placed  in  tubs  or  pans,  to 
granulate.  Crystals  of  sugar  will  begin  to  form,  in 
from  three  to  four  days,  and  sometimes  nearly  the 
whole  mass  will  granulate,  leaving  but  little  molasses 
to  be  drained.  After  it  has  become  solid,  it  may  be 
scooped  out  into  conical  shaped  bags,  made  of  coarse, 
open  cloth,  or  canvas,  which  are  to  be  hung  over  the 
receivers  for  molasses  ;  the  drainage  being  aided  by 
warmth,  it  will  be  useful  to  keep  the  temperature  of 
the  room  at  eighty  or  ninety  degrees,  Fahrenheit. 

After  some  days,  the  sugar  may  be  removed  from 
the  bags,  and  will  be  found  to  be  good,  brown  sugar. 
If  desired,  it  may  now  be  refined,  by  dissolving  in  it 
hot  water,  adding  to  the  solution  the  whites  of  eggs 
(say  one  egg  for  one  hundred  pounds  of  sugar), 
mixed  with  cold  water,  after  which  the  temperature 
is  to  be  raised  to  boiling,  and  the  syrup  should  be 
allowed  to  remain  at  that  heat  for  half  an  hour* 
Then  skim  and  filter,  to  remove  the  congulated 
albumen,  and  the  impurities  it  has  extracted  from 
the  sugar-  By  means  of  bone-black,  such  as  is 
prepared  for  sugar  refiners,  the  sugar  may  be 
decolored,  by  adding  an  ounce  to  -each  gallon  of  the 
mcharine  solution,  and  boiling  the  whole  together  * 
Then  filter,  and  3rou  wTill  obtain  a  nearly  colorless 
syrup.  Evaporate  this,  as  before  directed,  briskly  to 
half  its  bulk,  and  then  slowly,  until  dense  enough  to 
crystalize,  leaving  the  syrup  .as  before,  in  tubs  or 
pans  to  granulate.  This  sugar  will  be  of  ,a  light 
brow^  color,  and  may  now  be  Delayed  and  whitened 
by  the  usual  method — that  is,  by  putting  it  into  cones 
and  pouring  a  saturated  solution  of  white  sugar  upon 
7 


146  WALL'S    MANUAL 

it,  so  as  to  displace  the  molasses,  which  wrill  drop 
from  the  apex  of  the  inverted  cone.  The  sugar  is 
now  as  refined  as  loaf  sugar. 

The  methods  here  described  are  common  and 
cheap  ones,  such  as  any  farmer  may  employ.  It 
may  be  advantageous,  when  operations  of  considerable 
extent  are  contemplated,  to  arrange  a  regular  system 
of  shallow,  evaporating  pans,  for  the  concentration 
of  the  syrup.  A  very  large  proportion  of  our  farm- 
ers will  doubtless  be  satisfied  with  the  production  of 
good  syrup  from  this  plant.  They  may  obtain  it  by 
following  the  method  above  described,  or,  they  may 
omit  the  lime,  and  make  an  agreeable,  but  slightly 
addumis  syrup,  that  will  be  of  a  lighter  color  than 
that  wrhich  has  been  limed.  This  syrup  is  not  liable 
to  crystalizc,  owing  to  the  presence  of  acid  matter. 
The  unripe  canes  can  bo  employed  in  making  molasses 
and  alcohol,  but,  as  before  stated,  will  not  yield  true 
c  me- sugar. 

SUGAR    CANE SACCHARINE     OFFICINARUM. 

The  present  condition  of  the  West  India  Islands, 
and  particularly  the  Island  of  Cuba,  makes  it  inter- 
esting to  look  into  the  culture  of  the  true  sugar  cane, 
and  sec  if  it  cannot  be  cultivated  profitably  in  higher 
latitudes  than  at  present. 

Louisiana  took  the  lead  in  the  cultivation  of  this 
plant ;  as  early  as  1726  it  was  cultivated  near  New 
Orleans,  but  sugar  was  not  made  in  that  State  until 
the  year  1760,  and  so  late  as  the  year  1818,  the 
entire  crop  of  the  State  amounted  to  only  25,000 
hogsheads.  The  product  of  sugar  in  Louisiana  in 
1845  reached  the  enormous  quantity  of  207,337.000 


OF    AGRICULTURE.  147 

pounds,  and  about  9,000,000  gallons  of  molasses,  and 
nearly  615,000,000, 

The  cane  was  introduced  into  Georgia  from 
Otaheite  in  1805,  and  sugar  was  for  some  time 
produced  for  export,  It  was  an  object  of  attention 
while  it  commanded  ten  cents  per  pound,  but  when 
the  prices  declined  to  five  or  six  cents,  it  ceased  to 
be  manufactured  as  an  article  of  commerce,  though 
still  produced  for  domestic  consumption.  Of  late 
years  a  good  deal  of  attention  has  been  paid  to  its 
cultivation  in  Texas  and  Florida.  Large  portions  of 
these  States  are  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  the 
plant.  The  Southern  and  middle  portions  of  Alabama 
and  Mississippi,  as  well  as  the  Eastern  portions  of 
the  Carolinas,  have  grown  the  true  sugar  cane  to 
some  extent  for  syrup, 

RIBBON  CANE — CREOLE  OR  MALABAR  CANE, 

The  introduction  of  the  ribbon  cane  from  Georgia 
into  the  adjoining  States,  in  1817,  by  giving  a  much 
hardier  variety,  has  largely  extended  the  area  of  its 
cultivation, 

VARIETIES, 

The  kind  most  cultivated  in  the  United  States  is 
the  stripped  ribbon  or  Java,  which  is  by  far  the 
hardiest  and  most  enduring  cane,  It  grows  rapidly, 
is  of  large  size,  and  resists  the  effects  of  early  and 
late  frosts,  and  the  excess  of  rains  or  droughts  and 
disease,  better  than  any  other.  It  has,  however,  a 
hard  course  rind,  and  yields  juice  of  only  medium 
quality.  The  Creole,  Crystaline  or  Malabar,  was  the 
first  introduced,  and  though  of  diminutive  size,  is  a 


148  WALL'S   MANUAL 

cane  of  great  richness  and  value,  Several  varieties 
of  the  Otaheita,  the  purple,  the  yellow,  and  the 
purple  banded,  are  more  or  less  cultivated,  but  tho 
juice  is  decidedly  inferior  to  the  Creole, 

SOIL, 

The  cane  will  nourish  in  a  great  variety  of  soils, 
Varying  between  the  extremes  of  stiff  clay  and  a 
light,  sandy  loam,  provided  the  clay  soil  be  well 
drained  and  fertile,  The  soil  best  suited  is  a  rich 
loam,  well  supplied  with  lime,  and  such  as  will  yield 
the  best  crops  of  Indian  corn,  The  best  and  most 
enduring  soils  in  the  West  Indies  and  elsewhere, 
contain  large  quantities  of  lime  and  phosphates, 
One  of  the  most  profitable  sugar  plantations  in 
Louisiana  has  a  profusion  of  shells  scattered  over  it 
in  every  stage  of  decomposition. 

SEED    CANE, 

This  plant  is  always  propagated  by  cuttings, 
These  ought  to  be  provided  from  the  best  and  most 
mature  cane  of  the  preceding  season,  The  only 
available  means  of  improving  or  preventing  deteriora- 
tion is  to  be  found  in  planting  the  very  best  quali- 
ties of  seed  cane. 

PRESERVATION     OF    SEED    CANE., 

This  is  kept  from  the  period  of  cutting  until 
planting,  by  simply  placing  it  on  the  dry  surface  of 
the  ground,  in  beds  or  mattresses,  as  they  are 
technically  called,  of  about  ten  feet  in  depth,  and 
having  the  tops  shingling,  or  overlying  the  ripe 
portions  of  the  stalk  to  protect  the  seed  cane  from 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  149 

the  frosts  and  sun.  It  is  well  to  preserve  an  excess 
of  seed  cane,  as  continued  and  severe  spring  frosts 
may  cut  down  and  destroy  so  many  young  shoots  as 
to  leave  a  bad  stand,  unless  partially  replanted.  Many 
assert  the  cane  will  keep  better  by  being  cut  soon 
after  a  rain,  so  as  to  be  bedded  with  the  sap  vessels 
full,  and  that  dry  rot  follows  when  cut  after  a 
drought.  Some  planters,  however,  allow  it  to  lie  on 
the  ground  and  wilt  for  two  or  three  days  after 
cutting,  and  assert  when  thus  treated,  the  cane  keeps 
equally  well.  Corn  which  is  intended  for  grinding  is 
often  thus  secured  when  severe  frosts  are  anticipated. 
It  requires  additional  labor  to  top  and  trim  it  when 
thus  harvested,  but  a  good  yield  of  sugar  is  in  that 
way  secured,  which  might  otherwise  be  lost. 

PREPARATION      FOR     PLANTING. 

Where  the  land  is  fresh,  it  is  invariably  light,  and 
full  of  vegetable  matter.  Shallow  plowing,  and  wide 
distances  between  the  rows,  are  then  justified.  The 
cane  grows  luxuriantly  in  such  soils,  and  when  there 
is  a  deficiency  of  warm  weather  to  mature  fully, 
room  is  required  to  allow  a  free  circulation  of  air, 
and  the  full  benefit  of  the  sun,  to  ripen  it  before  the 
approach  of  frost.  From  seven  to  ten  feet  is  near 
enough  for  the  rows,  but  these  should  contain  from 
two  to  three  continuous  lines  of  good  plant  cane. 
Where  the  land  is  very  fertile,  wide  rows,  if  well 
cultivated,  will  produce  an  equal  quantity,  as  if 
planted  closer,  and  there  is  much  less  expense  and 
labor  in  planting  and  cultivating  the  crop. 

Land  that  has  been  long  in  cultivation  may  be 
planted  nearer,  but  if  rich,  as  it  ought  always  to  be, 


150  WALL'S    MANUAL 

the  rows  should  never  be  nearer  than  six  feet,  and 
might,  with  advantage,  extend  to  nine.  It  was 
formerly  the  practice  to  plant  a  single  line  of  cane, 
in  rows  from  two  and  a  half  to  four  feet  apart ;  but 
this  system  has  been  abandoned,  as  it  was  found 
troublesome  in  cultivating,  slowrer  in  ripening,  and  it 
is  believed  to  have  lessened  the  size  of  the  cane. 

Some  planters  make  their  cane  beds  every  sixteen 
feet,  planting  in  each,  two  rows  of  cane  at  a  distance 
of  four  feet,  and  leaving  a  space  between  every 
alternate  row  of  eleven  feet.  There  is  a  great 
advantage  in  these  wide  spaces,  as  the  trash  (top, 
leaves,  and  vegetable  matter),  together  with  the 
bagasse  (the  residium  of  the  cane  after  expressing  the 
juice),  can  all  be  buried  in  the  wide  spaces,  and  remain 
undisturbed  till  decomposed,  without  injuring  the 
growing  crop.  On  light,  sandy  lands,  these  materials 
may  be  burned,  and  the  ashes  applied  to  the  soil ;  but  in 
adhesive,  or  clay  soils,  good  husbandry  requires  that 
all  should  be  buried,  as  the  vegetable  decay,  the 
humus  or  mold,  not  only  contains  every  element  for 
the  reproduction  of  the  future  crop,  but  it  effects  a 
mechanical  division  in  the  soil,  of  great  value  to  its 
porosity  and  productiveness.  If  oyster  shell  lime, 
or  any  other  lime,  be  added  to  the  "bagasse" 
(refuse  from  the  sugar  mills),  it  will  hasten  the 
decomposition,  and  at  the  same  time  correct,  or 
neutralize,  the  acetic  acid,  or  vinegar,  formed  by  the 
fermentation  of  the  "  bagasse  "  in  the  soil. 

The  land  should  be  deeply  broken  up,  with  a  twro 
or  .four  horse  plow.  If  light  and  sandy,  it  may  be 
plowed  flat ;  but  if  stiff  or  wet,  it  should  be  thrown 
up  in  beds.  Great  advantage  has  generally  followed 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  151 

the  use  of  the  subsoil  plow,  when  run  a  foot  below  the 
bottom  of  the  turning  furrow,  and  immediately  under 
the  rows  to  be  occupied  by  the  seed- cane.  This  is 
the  more  important,  as  no  opportunity  will  again 
occur  for  breaking  up  this  portion  of  the  soil,  until 
the  plant  is  renewed.  The  plowing  should  never 
long  precede  the  planting,  unless  in  stiff  soils,  which 
need  the  mellowing  influence  of  the  atmosphere  to 
crumble  the  large  clods  ;  nor  in  these,  beyond  the 
period  necessary  to  effect  this  object.  A  fine  bed  of 
well  pulverized  earth  is  thus  secured  for  the  plants 
to  root  in,  and  afford  its  nourishment  to  the  young 
shoots. 

PLANTING. 

This  may  be  done  any  time  between  October  and 
April.  There  is  a  greater  certainty  of  a  good  crop, 
if  in  the  ground  by  the  first  of  March. 

On  land  previously  well  plowed,  open  a  wide 
furrow,  with  the  fluke,  or  double  mold- board  plow, 
clean  this  out  with  the  hoe,  of  a  uniform  width,  by 
the  removal  of  any  clods  that  may  have  fallen  in 
after  the  plow.  With  the  increased  width  of  trench, 
now  usually  adopted  by  the  best  planters,  not  less 
than  three  parallel  seed- stalks  should  be  planted. 
These  ought  to  be  in  line,  and  about  four  inches 
apart ;  and  it  is  better  to  place  them  so  that  the  eyes 
may  shoot  out  horizontally,  and  thus  come  up  at  the 
same  time,  and  on  opposite  sides  of  the  seed- stalk. 
Cover  with  sufficient  earth  to  prevent  freezing,  from 
anji  weather  that  may  follow.  On  the  approach  of 
spring,  remove  the  earth  to  the  depth  of  one  or  two 
inches.  Light  spring  frosts  will  not  injure  the  plant, 


152  WALL'S   MANUAL 

otherwise  than  to  cut  down  the  young  shoots,  and 
thus  delay  the  growth  till  new  leaves  appear.  The 
only  danger  is  in  removing  too  much  of  the  earth,  so 
as  to  expose  the  roots  to  freezing. 

CULTIVATING. 

Throughout  most  of  Louisiana  the  cane  yields  three 
crops  from  one  planting.  The  first  season  it  is  called 
plant  cane,  and,  subsequently,  ratoons.  On  new  and 
very  favorable  lands  the  ratoons  will  produce  equal 
to  the  plant  cane  for  several  years ;  and  sometimes 
on  the  prairie  lands  of  Attakapas  and  Opclousas,  and 
in  higher  latitudes,  it  requires  to  be  planted  every 
year.  The  cultivation  is  alike  in  either  case,  after 
the  young  shoot  makes  its  appearance,  previous  to 
which  the  ratoons  should  be  barred  off  and  scraped,  on 
the  approach  of  settled  warm  weather.  The  sun's 
influence  is  thus  sooner  felt  upon  the  roots,  and  a 
quicker  growth  is  secured  to  the  cane.  But  if  these 
operations  are  performed  early,  or  too  closely,  frosts 
may  seriously  injure  the  plants.  Soon  after  the  plants 
have  made  their  appearance,  the  earth  is  gradually 
thrown  back  to  them  by  repeated  plowings,  the  hoes 
aiding  the  operation,  and  to  keep  the  cane  clear  of 
weeds.  There  is  a  great  advantage  in  wide  planting, 
as  two-horse  plows  can  be  used  in  cultivation.  There 
i.3  generally  a  larger  growth  from  deep  and  efficient 
plowing ;  and  where  weeds,  and  more  especially  the 
coco  grass,  abound,  great  economy  in  subduing  these 
is  secured  by  the  use  of  the  large  plow,  as  they  are 
thus  so  deeply  buried,  and  can  again  only  make  their 
appearance  after  a  long  interval. 

When    the   cane  has   acquired    such  a  hight  and 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  15o 

expansion  of  loaves  as  to  shado  the  ground  effectually 
(which,  if  all  the  first  operations  have  been  well 
performed,  will  be  about  the  first  of  June),  the  last 
furrows  are  thrown  to  the  roots,  and  the  earth  slopes 
gradually  to  the  center,  forming  an  elevation  about 
the  plants  and  a  depression  between  the  rows  (a  water 
furrow),  which  serves  as  a  drain  for  the  surplus 
rains.  Many  of  the  best  planters  run  a  large  subsoil 
plow  in  this  water  furrow,  which  more  effectually 
drains  the  bed.  Throughout  the  cultivation,  except 
when  first  barred  off,  great  care  should  be  observed 
to  avoid  cutting  or  breaking  the  roots.  This  caution 
is  applicable  to  all  plants,  but  especially  to  the  sugar 
cane,  which  requires  the  aid  of  all  its  roots  to  develop 
and  mature  the  plant  before  cold  weather.  Good 
implements,  good  plowmen,  and  thorough  tillage,  are 
essential  preliminaries  to  a  good  sugar  crop. 

HARVESTING. 

Iii  the  West  Indies  and  most  other  foreign  coun- 
tries, where  this  plant  is  grown,  the  cane  fully  ripens; 
but  in  Louisiana  and  other  States,  it  very  seldom  or 
never  fully  matures.  It  begins  to  ripen  at  the  foot 
of  the  stalk,  in  August  or  September,  and  advances 
upward  at  the  rate  of  about  six  inches  per  week.  The 
proper  period  for  cutting  would  be  just  previous  to 
the  heavy  black  frosts,  or  freeze ;  but  as  it  requires 
several  weeks  to  secure  the  crop,  the  harvesting  is 
generally  commenced  by  the  middle  of  October,  and 
steadily  followed  up  till  completed.  This  is  done  by 
striking  off  the  top  (unripened  part),  then  stripping 
the  leaves  by  a  single  downward  stroke  of  the  knife 
on  either  side ;  and  another  blow  severs  one  or 


154  WALL'S   MANUAL 

stalks  at  the  foot.  The  cane  is  then  thrown  upon 
carls  and  hauled  to  the  mill,  where  it  should  at  once 
be  ground,  the  juice  expressed,  boiled,  granulated,  and 
put  up  for  market. 

Slight  frosts  in  autumn  are  beneficial,  rather  than 
injurious,  as,  by  deadening  the  leaves  and  tops,  they 
check  vegetation,  and  stimulate,  rather  than  retard, 
the  ripening  of  the  plant.  When  severe  frosts  are 
apprehended,  it  will  justify  cutting  the  cane  as  rapidly 
as  possible,  and  mattrcssing,  as  before  described  under 
the  the  head  of  "  the  preservation  of  cane ." 

The  mode  of  making  sugar  and  molasses  from  the 
true  cane,  has  been  reduced  to  such  a  science  that  a 
description  of  the  appliances  and  machinery  necessary 
for  the  operation,  would  require  a  book  larger  than 
this  MANUAL.  It  rather  belongs  to  the  arts  than  to 
agriculture. 

ANALYSIS   OF    THE    ASHES   OP   THE    SUGAR   CANE,    BY   STENTIOUSE, 

SMif-n, 44.13 

Phosphoric  Acid 4.88 

Suli'lmrio  Acid 7.74 

Lime 4.40 

Magnesia 11.90 

Potash 16.97 

Soda ~ 1.04 

Chloride  of  Sodium  (salt) 7.2& 

From  the  above  analysis,  we  can  see  the  mineral 
ingredients  necessary  to  be  returned  to  the  soil.  We 
can  now  intelligently  discuss  the 

MANURES   FOR    CANES. 

If  the  alluvial  bottoms  of  Louisiana  and  other  fertile, 
level  lands,  are  properly  managed,  they  will  never 
become  exhausted  by  the  cultivation  of  cane.  Tired 
of  it  they  may  be,  as  land  is  of  any  constantly  recur- 
ring crop ;  but  exhaustion  will  never  be  accomplished 


OF    AGRICULTURE,  155 

if  the  elements  constituting  the  stalk  and  leaves  of 
the  plant  are,  without  fail,  returned  to  the  soil,  This 
is  done  simply  by  burying  the  bagasse  and  trash,  with 
the  addition  of  lime,  to  hasten  decomposition.  If  the 
bagasse  is  burned,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  when 
there  is  a  deficiency  of  fuel,  the  ashes  should  bo 
carried  and  spread  on  the  field. 

From  the  above  table  of  the  ash  of  cane,  we  see 
that  potash,  in  some  form,  is  highly  essential,  as  well 
as  lime,  common  Bait,  sulphates  and  phosphates. 
These  and  other  fertilizing  materials  can  be  procured 
in  adequate  proportions  from  stable  manures,  if  the 
latter  are  to  be  had ;  but  when  there  is  a  deficiency 
of  them,  the  land  may  be  restored  by  adding  most  or 
all  of  the  following  ingredients  :  Potash — ashes  will 
afford  it  with  the  most  economy  and  in  the  greatest 
abundance ;  it  is  yielded  by  the  slow  decay  of  vegetable 
matter,  and  stable  manure,  and  also  from  the  decom- 
position of  many  species  of  rocks,  especially  from 
green  sand  marl.  Lime,  marl,  or  ground  shells — these 
are  mostly  pure  carbonates,  with,  sometimes,  a  slight 
addition  of  the  phosphate  of  lime.  Land  plaster, 
gypsum,  or  the  phosphate  of  lime,  is  a  cheap  and 
appropriate  fertilizer,  as  it  yields  the  plant  both  sul- 
phuric acid  and  lime.  Ground  bones  or  phosphate  of 
lime,  common  salt  (chloride  of  sodium),  seems,  from 
the  analysis,  to  be  a  direct  food  for  the  plant. 

DRAINAGE. 

Deep,  thorough  under- drain  age,  is  peculiarly  neces- 
sary in  preparing  the  sugar  lands  of  the  South  to 
yield  their  greatest  crops  and  choicest  quality  of 
sugar  cane.  All  the  advantages  enumerated  under 


150  WALL'S   MANUAL 

the  head  of  draining,  will  apply  here.  The  cane  on 
thoroughly  drained  lands  will  commence  growing 
earlier  in  the  spring  than  on  the  undrained;  it  will 
grow  faster  during  the  summer,  ripen  earlier  and 
mature  a  larger  portion  of  stalk,  and  yield  a  better, 
richer  juice. — [ Condensed  from  Allen' 's  American  Farm 
Book. 

RICE — (Oryza  Satira}. 

This  grain  probably  contributes  directly  to  the 
support  of  a  larger  number  of  the  human  family, 
than  any  other  plant. 

VARIETIES. 

All  the  varieties  yet  discovered,  flourish  best  under 
the  inundation  system  of  culture ;  yield  more  to  the 
acre,  give  less  trouble,  and  require  less  labor.  Each 
variety  will  grow  well  on  light,  moist  uplands,  without 
irrigation,  when  cultivated  with  the  hoe  or  plow. 

CULTIVATION    OF    LOWLAND    RICE. 

The  method  pursued  on  the  rice  lands  of  the  lower 
Mississippi,  is  to  sow  the  rice  broadcast,  about  as 
thick  as  wheat,  and  harrow  it  in  with  a  light  harrow 
with  many  teeth  ;  th  ground  being  first  well  plowed 
and  prepared,  by  ditches  and  embankments  for 
inundation.  It  is  generally  sown  in  March,  and 
immediately  after  the  sowing,  the  water  is  let  on.  so 
as  barely  to  overflow  the  ground;  the  water  is  with- 
drawn the  second  or  fourth  day,  or  as  soon  as  the 
grain  begins  to  swell.  The  rice,  very  soon  after, 
comes  up  and  grows  finely.  When  it  has  attained 
about  three  inches  in  height,  tl  c  water  is  again  let 


OF    AGRICULTURE.  157 

on,  the  top  leaves  being  left  a  little  above  the  water. 
Complete  immersion  would  kill  the  plant.  About 
two  weeks  previous  to  harvest,  the  water  is  drawn 
off  to  give  the  stalks  strength,  and  to  dry  the  ground 
for  the  convenience  of  the  reapers.  The  same  space 
of  ground,  yields  three  times  as  much  rice  as  wheat.  The 
only  labor  after  sowing,  is  to  see  that  the  rice  is 
properly  irrigated ;  except,  in  some  localities  where 
aquatic  plants  prove  troublesome,  the  water  effectually 
destroying  all  others.  The  rice  grounds  of  the  lower 
Mississippi,  produce  about  seventy-five  dollars'  worth 
of  rice  per  acre.  The  variety  called  the  Creole  white 
rice,  is  esteemed  the  most  profitable  and  best. 

CULTIVATION    OF   UPLAND    RICE. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  State  of  Mississippi, 
called  the  piney  ivoods,  rice  has  been  very  generally 
cultivated  upon  the  uplands.  Although  it  cannot 
be  made  a  profitable  article  of  export,  yet  it  affords 
the  people  of  the  interior  an  abundant  supply  of  a 
healthy  food  for  themselves,  and  a  good  provender 
for  their  cattle.  Unlike  other  kinds  of  grain,  it  can 
be  kept  for  many  years,  in  a  warm  climate,  without 
spoiling  ;  by  winnowing  it  semi- annually. 

It  is  cultivated  entirely  with  the  plow  and  har- 
row, and  grows  well  on  the  pine  barrens.  A  kind  of 
shovel-plow,  drawn  by  one  horse,  is  driven  through 
the  unbroken  pine  forest;  not  a  tree  being  cut  or 
belted,  and  no  grubbing  being  necessary,  as  there  is 
little  or  no  undergrowth.  The  plow  makes  a  shallow 
furrow,  an  inch  or  two  in  depth ;  the  furrows  are 
placed  about  three  feet  apart.  The  rice  is  dropped 
into  them  and  covered  with  a  harrow.  The  middles, 


158  WALL'S    MANUAL 

or  space  between  the  rows,  are  not  broken  up  until 
the  rice  attains  several  inches  in  height.  One  or  two 
plo wings  suffice  in  the  piney  woods  for  its  cultivation, 
weeds  and  grass,  owning  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  not 
being  troublesome, 

There  are  two  kinds  of  rice,  said  to  succeed  best 
on  uplands,  the  long  and  the  round,  The  long,  has  a 
red  chaff,  and  is  very  difficult  to  beat  out.  The  round 
shakes  out,  if  not  cut  as  soon  as  ripe.  They,  never- 
theless, all  succeed  best  under  the  inundation  system 
of  culture,  for  rice  is  essentially  a  water  plant. 

Before  the  war,  the  best  rice  lands  of  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia,  wrere  valued  at  five  hundred 
dollars  per  acre ;  while  the  best  cotton  lands  sold  for 
one- tenth  part  of  that  sum;  proving  that  rice  wTas 
more  profitable  than  cotton.  The  profit  of  a  crop  of 
rice,  should  not  be  estimated  by  the  yield  per  acre, 
but  by  the  number  of  acres  a  laborer  can  till.  After 
the  land  is  properly  prepared  for  inundation,  by 
levelling,  ditching,  and  embankments,  a  single  indi- 
vidual can  grow  rice  almost  without  limit.  If  Chinese 
labor  is  introduced  into  the  lower  Yalley  of  the 
Mississippi,  rice  is  ultimately  destined  to  supercede 
cotton,  in  a  large  portion  of  the  States  of  Mississippi 
and  Louisiana, 

From  the  immense  extent  of  our  lowlands  through- 
out the  delta  of  the  Mississippi,  which,  if  subjected 
to  the  inundating  system  for  growing  rice,  may  be 
considered  of  inexhaustible  fertility,  we  may  expect 
at  some  future  day,  not  very  distant,  to  surpass  every 
other  portion  of  the  world  in  the  quantity,  as  we  do 
now  in  the  quality,  of  our  rice. — (Condensed  from 
Allen's  American  Farm  Book.} 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  159 

CHAPTER    XX. 

RECAPITULATION    OF     SOME     OF    THE    MOST    IMPORTANT 
FACTS. 

When  a  vegetable  substance  is  burned  the  mass  of 
it  disappears,  taking  the  form  of  gases  and  escaping 
into  the  air,  and  a  small  residue  remains,  termed  ashes. 
Now,  when  plants  grow,  they  draw  back  again  from 
the  air  all  those  gases  which  escape  into  it  by 
combustion,  and  obtain  from  the  soil  only  those 
mineral  solids  which  form  ashes.  The  great  bulk  of 
vegetable  matter  is  derived  from  the  air,  and  as  the 
atmosphere  is  uniform  in  composition,  that  portion 
of  the  nutrition  of  plants  which  depends  on  this 
source  may  go  forward  in  all  places  with  nearly 
equal  facility. 

The  atmosphere  contains  an  exhaustless  store  of 
elements  for  the  use  of  vegetation,  and  as  far  as  it 
alone  is  concerned,  all  plants  may  be  grown  with 
equal  success  in  all  places.  But  other  agencies  step 
in  and  say  no.  As,  for  instance,  heat  and  light,  which 
radiate  from  the  sun.  In  consequence  of  the  almost 
round  shape  of  the  earth,  these  rays  fall  unequally 
upon  its  different  parts.  At  the  equator,  where  the 
rays  are  perpendicular,  the  heat  and  light  are  more 
intense,  while  we  pass  toward  the  poles  the  rays 
strike  the  earth  more  obliquely,  and  the  heat  is  not 
as  great.  Now,  to  the  variations  of  temperature 
plants  are  adapted.  Equatorial  vegetation  requiring 
largp  qualities  of  heat  and  light,  cannot  flourish  in 
temperate  climates,  for  although  the  air  and  soil  may 
contain  all  the  chemical  elements  necessary  to  its 


ICO  WALL'S    MANUAL 

growth,  yet  one   of  the  conditions  essential   to  it  is 
wanting,  namely,  heat  and  light.     In  addition  to  the 
part  played  by  the  atmosphere  and  climate,  which 
may   be   regarded   in  a   measure  as   independent  of 
human    control,    there    is    a   third    condition    of  the 
growth  of  plants  which  relates  to  the  Composition  of 
soils.     If  there  is  a  want  of  elements,  derived  from 
the    soil,    growth    is   impossible;    but    if    they    are 
abundantly  supplied,  nutrition  is  rapid,  and  growth 
w^ill   bo  luxuriant.       To   ascertain  and   regulate   the 
adaptation  of  soils  to  plants,  to  find  out  the  elements 
necessary  for  their  development,  and  the  best  and 
most  economical  method   of  supplying  them,  is  the 
great  problem  of  agriculture.     This  problem  we  have 
endeavored  to  work  out  in  the  preceding  chapters  of 
this  work.     We  have  collected  facts,  illustrations  and 
experiments  from  every  reliable  and  available  source. 
In    growing   cultivated    plants,    we    cannot    depend 
entirely   upon   the    elements    of    the   air.      A   plant 
supplied  with  all  the  mineral  substances  in  the  soil, 
and  allowed  sufficient  time,  will  extract  the  necessary 
gases  from  the  air,  and   attain  a  vigorous  develop- 
ment.    But  if  it  is  desired  to  hasten  the  maturity  of 
the   plant,    as    is    frequently    necessary    in    certain 
climates,  or  to  stimulate  it  to  excessive  growth,  then 
vegetable  or  animal  manures  must  be  added  to  the 
soil,  which,  by  decay  and  putrification,  generate  large 
quantities  of  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia  in  the  imme- 
diate neighborhood  of  the  roots,  by  which  they  are 
taken  up  when  dissolved  in  water. 

The  "ashes  "  or  mineral  elements  of  plants,  though 
small  in  quantity,  yet  are  of  the  very  highest 
importance.  Unlike  the  organic  elements,  which 


O  T     A'G  R  I  C  U  L  T  U  R  E  .  161 

arc  the  same  in   all  plants,  these  vary  in  different 
varieties  of  vegetation. 

As  one  kind  of  plant  takes  up  one  mineral  from 
the  soil,  and  others  take  other  kinds,  the  farmer  finds 
it  advantageous  to  cultivate  in  succession  different 
varieties  of  plants  on  the  same  grounds  j  this  is- 
called  rotation  of  crops. 

If  a  soil  yields  good  crops  of  one  vegetable,  and 
not  of  another,  it  must  be  wanting  in  the  mineral 
elements  of  the  latter,  which  should  be  supplied. 
If  any  particular  plant,  cultivated  or  wild,  nourishes 
in  any  given  spot,  an  examination  or  analysis  of  the 
ashes  indicates  at  once  the  capabilities  of  the  soil  by 
showing  what  soluble  salts  it  furnishes. 

Decaying-  vegetable  and  animal  matters,  when 
applied  to  crops,  act  not  only  in  supplying  carbonic 
acid  and  ammonia,  but  by  furnishing  such  mineral 
salts  as  are  contained  in  them,  and  that,  too,  in  the 
very  best  condition  to  be  taken  up  by  plants.  Hence 
for  any  particular  crop  there  is  no  manure  so  good  as 
the  same  kind  of  vegetable  in  a  state  of  decay,  or  its 
ashes,  or  the  droppings  of  animals  fed  upon  it ;  but 
in  the  latter  case  it  is  of  the  first  importance  to  make 
use  of  the  whole  manure  of  the  animal,  as  its  liquid 
excretions,  the  part  most  liable  to  be  lost,  are  by  far 
the  richest  in  soluble  salts. 

Nature  seems  to  have  made  it  a  fixed  law  that  if 
one  of  the  important  ingredients  of  the  plant  is 
absent,  the  others,  though  they  may  be  present  iii 
sufficient  quantities,  cannot  be  used.  This,  if  the  soil 
is  deficient  in  alkalies,  and  still  has  sufficient  quanti- 
ties of  all  the  other  ingredients,  the  plant  cannot 
take  these  ingredients,  because  alkalies  are  necessary 
to  its  growth. 


1G2  WALL'S    MANUAL 

In  the  case  of  all  plants,  the  following  operations 
are  going  on  at  the  same  time:  The  leaves  are 
absorbing  carbonic  acid  from  the  air,  and  the  roots 
are  drinking  in  water  from  the  soil.  There  is  a 
constant  tendency  to  supply  the  deficiency  of  water 
in  the  root,  and  keep  it  constantly  charged  with  as 
much  as  it  can  dissolve  of  the  plant  food. 

Under  the  influence  of  daylight  the  carbonic  acid 
is  decomposed,  its  oxygen  returned  to  the  air,  and  its 
carbon,  retained  in  the  plant. 

Water  taken  in  by  the  [roots  circulates  through 
the  sap  vessels  of  the  plant,  and  is  drawn  toward  the 
leaves,  where  it  is  evaporated.  This  water  contains 
the  nitrogen  and  mineral  food  required  by  the  plant, 
and  some  carbonic  acid,  while  the  water  itself  consists 
of  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  Thus  we  see  plants  obtain 
their  food  in  the  following  manner : 

Carbon,  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid,  from  the 
atmosphere,  and  from  that  contained  in  the  sap,  the 
oxygen  being  returned  to  the  air. 

Oxygen  and  hydrogen,  from  the  elements  of  the 
water  constituting  sap. 

Nitrogen,  from  the  soil,  chiefly  in  the  form  of 
ammonia.  It  is  carried  into  the  plant  through  the 
roots,  in  solution  in  water. 

Mineral  elements,  from  the  soil,  and  only  in  solution 
in  water. 

The  food  taken  up  by  the  plant  undergoes  such 
changes  as  are  required  for  its  growth  ;  the  nutritive 
portions  of  the  sap  are  resolved  into  wood,  bark, 
grain  or  other  necessary  parts. 

The  results  of  these  changes  are  of  the  greatest 
importance  in  agriculture,  and  no  person  ought  to  be 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  163 

called  a  thoroughly  practical  farmer,  who  docs  not 
understand  them. 

We  have  thus  far  examined  the  raw  material  of 
plants.  We  have  looked  at  each  of  the  elements,  sepa- 
rately, and  considered  its  uses  in  vegetable  growth. 
We  will  now  consider  another  division  of  plants. 

We  know  that  they  consist  of  various  substances, 
such  as  wood,  gum,  starch,  oil,  etc.,  and  on  examina- 
tion, we  shall  discover  that  these  substances  are 
composed  of  the  various  atmospheric  and  mineral 
ingredients  described  in  the  preceding  chapters.  They 
are  made-  up  almost  entirely  of  atmospheric  matter, 
but  their  ashy  parts,  though  small,  are  of  great 
importance. 

These  compounds  may  be  divided  into  two  classes. 
The  first  class  is  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and 
oxygen.  The  second  class  contains  the  same  sub- 
stance, and  nitrogen. 

The  "first  class — that  containing  no  nitrogen  — 
comprises  the  wood,  starch,  gum,  sugar  and  fatty 
matter,  which  constitutes  the  greater  part  of  all 
plants ;  also,  the  acids  which  are  found  in  some 
fruits,  etc. 

Yarious  as  are  all  of  these  things  in  their  character, 
they  are  entirely  composed  of  the  same  ingredients 
{carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen),  only  slightly  differing 
in  proportions.  There  may  be  a  slight  difference  in 
the  composition  of  their  ashes,  but  the  vegetable  parts 
derived  from  the  atmosphere,  vary  so  little  that  they 
can  often  be  artificially  changed  from  one  to  the 
other.  As  an  illustration  of  this  fact,  it  may  be 
stated  that,  at  the  fair  of  the  Mechanics'  Institute, 
Professor  Mapcs  exhibited  samples  of  excellent  sugar 


ft  WALL'S    MANUAL 

made  from  the  juice  of  corn-stalks,  from  starch,  from 
linen,  and  from  woody  fibre. 

In  the  plant,  during  its  growth,  these  elements  are 
constantly  changing.  At  one  time  they  assume  the 
form  in  which  they  cannot  be  dissolved  in  water,  and 
remain  fixed  in  their  places. 

At  another  time,  the  chemical  influences  on  which 
growth  depends,  change  them  to  a  soluble  form,  and 
they  are  carried  by  circulation  of  the  sap,  to  other 
parts  of  the  plant,  where  they  may  again  be 
deposited  in  other  insoluble  forms. 

As  an  illustration,  the  turnip  devotes  the  first 
season  of  its  growth  to  storing  up,  in  its  root,  a  large 
amount  of  starch  and  pcctic  acid;  in  the  second 
Reason  (when  set  out  for  seed),  these  substances 
become  soluble,  arc  taken  up  by  the  circulation,  and 
again  deposited  in  the  form  of  woody  fibre,  starch, 
etc.,  in  the  stems,  leaves,  and  seed-vessels,  above  the 
ground.  If  a  turnip  root  be  placed,  in  the  spring,  in 
moist  cotton-lint,  from  which  it  can  obtain  no  food, 
it  will  simply,  by  the  transformation  of  its  own 
substance,  form  stems,  leaves,  flowers,  and  seed. 

Those  products  of  vegetation  which  contain 
nitrogen,  are  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  farmer, 
being  the  ones  from  which  animal  muscle  is  made. 

They  consist,  as  will  be  recollected,  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  or  of  all  of  the 
atmospheric  elements  of  plants.  They  are  all  of, much 
the  same  character,  though  each  kind  of  plant  has 
its  peculiar  form  of  this  substance,  which  is  known 
under  the  general  name  of  protein. 

The  protein  of  wheat  is  called  gluten — that  of 
Indian  corn  is  zein — that  of  beans  and  peas  is 


0  tf    AGRICULTURE,  105 

legumin.  In  other  plants,  the  protective  substances 
are  vegetable  albumen,  cassin,  etc* 

Gluten  absorbs  large  quantities  of  water,  which 
Causes  it  to  swell  to  a  great  size,  and  become  fall  of 
holes.  Flour  which  contains  iiiuch  gluten,  makes 
light,  porous  bread,  and  is  preferred  by  bakers, 
because  it  absorbs  so  large  an  amount  of  water. 

These  nitrogen  compounds  are  necessary  to  animal 
and  vegetable  life,  and  none  of  our  cultivated  plants 
will  attain  maturity,  unless  allowed  the  material 
required  for  forming  them.  To  form  these,  is  the 
chief  object  of  nitrogen  given  to  plants  as  manure. 
If  no  nitrogen  could  be  obtained,  these  substaaces 
could  not  be  formed,  and  the  plant  would  cease  to 
grow.  On  the  contrary,  if  ammonia  is  given  to  the 
soil,  by  rains,  guano  or  stable  manure,  it  furnishes 
nitrogen,  wrhilc  the  carbonic  acid,  and  water,  yield  the 
other  constituents  of  protein,  and  a  healthy  growth 
Continues ;  provided,  the  soil  already  contains  the 
mineral  matters  required  in  the  formation  of  the  ash,, 
in  a  condition  to  be  taken  up  by  roots* 

The  wisdom  of  this  provision  is  evident,  when  WG 
recollect  that  the  nitrogen  compounds  are  necessary  to 
the  formation  of  muscle  in  animals,  for,  if  plants 
Were  allowed  to  complete  their  growth  without  a 
supply  of  nitrogen,  our  grain,  grass,  and  hay,  would 
not  be  sufficiently  supplied  to  keep  our  oxen  and 
horses  in  working  condition, 

THE       RELATION        BETWEEN       PLANTS       AND 
ANIMALS. 

That  this  matter  may  be  clearly  understood,  it 
may  be  w'ell  to  explain  more  fully  the  application  of 
the  different  constituents  of  plants  in  feeding  animals. 


ICO  WALL'S   MANUAL 

Animals  are  composed  (like  plants)  of  atmospheric 
and  mineral  matter,  and  everything  necessary  to 
build  them  up,  exists  in  plants.  It  is  one  of  the 
offices  of  the  vegetable  world,  to  prepare  the  grass  in 
the  air,  and  the  minerals  in  the  earth,  for  the  use  of 
animal  life;  and,  to  effect  this,  plants  put  these  gases 
and  minerals  together  in  wTheat,  corn,  oats,  barley 
and,  in  fact,  all  the  productions  of  the  earth, 

In  animals,  the  compounds  containing  no  nitrogen, 
comprise  the  fatty  substances,  parts  of  the  blood, 
etc.,  while  the  protein  compounds,  or  those  which 
contain  nitrogen,  form  the  muscle,  blood,  a  part  of  the 
bones,  the  hair,  and  other  portions  of  the  body, 

Animals  contain  a  larger  proportion  of  mineral 
matter  than  plants  do.  Bones  contain  a  largo 
quantity  of  phosphate  of  lime,  and  we  find  other 
mineral  compounds  performing  important  offices  in 
the  system. 

In  order  that  animals  may  be  perfectly  developed, 
they  must,  of  course,  receive  as  food,  all  of  the 
materials  required  to  form  their  bodies.  They 
cannot  live,  if  fed  entirely  on  one  ingredient.  Thus, 
for  example,  if  starch  alone  be  eaten  by  the  animal, 
he  might  become  fat,  but  his  strength  would  soon 
fail,  because  his  food  contains  nothing  to  keep  up  the 
vigor  of  the  muscles.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  food  of 
an  animal  consisted  entirely  of  gluten,  he  might  be 
very  strong  from  the  development  of  muscle,  but 
would  not  become  fat- 
Hence,  we  sec,  that  in  order  to  keep  up  the  proper 
proportion  of  both  fat  and  muscle  in  our  animals,  or  in 
ourselves,  the  food  must  be  such  as  contains  a  proper 
proportion  of  both  classes  of  vegetable  products. 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  167 

Apart  from  the  relations  between  the  organic  parts 
of  plants,  and  those  of  animals;  there  exists  an 
important  relation  between  their  ashes  or  their 
mineral  parts ;  and  food,  in  order  to  supply  the 
demands  of  animal  life,  must  contain  the  mineral 
matter  required  for  the  purposes  of  life. 

Take  bones,  for  instance  :  If  phosphate  of  lime  is 
not  always  supplied,  in  sufficient  quantities,  in  the 
food,  animals  are  prevented  from  forming  healthy 
bones.  This  is  particularly  noticed  in  the  teeth. 
When  food  is  deficient  in  the  phosphate  of  lime,  WTC 
see  poor  teeth  as  the  result. 

Some  eminent  physicians  have  supposed  that  one 
of  the  causes  of  consumption,  is  the  deficiency  of 
phosphate  of  lime  in  food.  The  first  class  of  vegeta- 
ble constituents  (starch,  sugar,  gum,  etc),,  performs 
an  important  office  in  the  animal  economy,,  aside  from 
their  use  in  making  fat.  They  constitute  the  fuel, 
which  supplies  the  animal's  fire,  and  gives  him  heat, 
The  lungs  are  the  delicate  stoves,  which  supply  the 
whole  body  with  heat. 

Let  us  explain  this  matter  more  fully.  If  wood, 
starch,  gum,  or  sugar,  be  burned  in  a  stove,  they 
produce  heat.  These  substances  consist  of  carbon r 
hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  and  when  they  are  destroyed 
in  any  way  (provided  they  are  exposed  to  the  air), 
the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  unite  and  form  water,  and 
the  carbon  unites  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and 
forms  carbonic  acid.  This  process  is  always  accom- 
panied by  the  production  of  heat,  and  the  intensity  of 
this  heat  depends  on  the  time  occupied  in  its  production. 

In  the  lungs  and  blood  vessels  of  animals,  the  same 
law  holds  true.  The  blood  contains  carbonaceous 


108  WALL'S    MANUAL 

matters,  and  they  undergo,  during  circulation,  the 
changes  which  have  been  described,  that  is,  combus- 
tion and  decay.  Their  hydrogen  and  oxygen  unite, 
and  form  the  moisture  of  the  breath,  while  their 
carbon  is  combined  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air, 
breathed  into  the  lungs,  and  is  thrown  out  as  carbonic 
acid  gas.  The  same  consequence — heat-^YGSultB  in 
this,  as  in  the  other  cases,  and  this  heat  is  produced 
with  sufficient  rapidity  for  the  necessities  of  the 
animal.  When  he  exercises  violently,  his  blood 
circulates  with  increased  rapidity,  thus  carrying 
carbon  more  rapidly  to  the  lungs.  The  breath  also 
becomes  quicker,  thus  supplying  increased  quantities 
of  oxygen.  In  this  way,  decomposition  becomes  more 
rapid,  and  the  animal  is  heated  in  proportion. 

Thus,  \ve  see  food  has  another  office,  besides  that 
of  forming  animal  matter,  namely,  to  supply  heat 
When  food  does  not  contain  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
starch,  sugar,  etc.,  to  answer  the  demands  of  the 
system,  the  animal's  own  fat  is  carried  to  the  lungs, 
und  then  used  in  the  production  of  hcuL 


CHAPTER    XXI, 

THE    VALUE    OP   CROPS   AS    FOOD, 

The  ingredients  of  plants  which  serve  valuable 
purposes  as  food,  are  starch,  sugar,  gum,  protein  mat- 
ter, oil,  woody  fibre,  water,  and  salts.  Starch  is  the 
most  abundant  element  in  grain  crops,  forming  about 
one-half  the  weight  of  the  most  common  cereal  grains ; 


OP     AGRICULTURE,  169 

but  in  these,  proportions  vary  to  some  considerable 
extent.  Even  in  the  same  species  of  grain,  the 
quantity  of  starch  differs  in  accordance  with  the 
circumstances  of  climate,  soil  and  culture. 

Wheat  contains  about  from  forty  to  fifty  per  cent. 
of  starch.  Corn  varies  less  widely  in  its  proportion 
of  starch,  ranging  from  forty  to  forty-five  per  cent. 
The  white,  soft  varieties  of  both  wheat  and  corn 
abound  most  in  starch.  Eye,  oats,  buckwheat,  and 
beans,  do  not  vary  widely  from  corn,  nor  from  one 
another,  in  the  per  centum  of  this  element.  Rico 
has  about  seventy  per  cent.  Potatoes  contain  fifteen 
per  cent,  of  starch ;  and  even  hay,  about  three  to  five 
per  cent. 

Gum  and  sugar  are  very  similar  to  each  other,  and 
very  similar  to  starch  in  their  nutritive  value.  They 
are  found  in  nearly  all  of  our  cultivated  crops,  in 
quantities  varying  from  two  to  fifteen  per  cent.  Hay 
cut  in  good  time,  has  more  of  the  substances  than  we 
find  in  any  of  the  ordinary  grains,  except  rye. 

Protein  compounds  are  composed,  in  part,  of  nitrogen. 
They  resemble  most  of  the  muscular  and  membraneous 
parts  of  animals,  and  constitute  the  elements  of  food 
which  nourish  these  parts  of  the  animal  body.  As 
the  greater  part  of  the  solid  portion  of  the  animal 
is  made  up  of  protein  matter,  it  may  be  regarded  as 
consisting  of  the  concentrated  protein  of  the  food 
consumed  during  its  growth.  Hence,  we  see  the 
importance  of  this  kind  of  food  in  building  up  the 
animal  system. 

Beans  and  peas  contain  more  protein  matter  than 
is  found  in  any  other  of  our  crops.  It  exists  here  in 
a  form  called  "legumin,"  and  in  quantity  as  high  as 


170  WALL'S    M  A  N  u  A  L 

twenty- five  per  cent.  The  cereals  (grain)  have  from 
ten  to  twenty  per  cent,  of  this  kind  of  matter,  chiefly 
in  the  form  of  "gluten"  It  is  most  abundant  on  the 
inner  surface  of  the  bran,  and. is  taken  out  largely 
with  it  in  the  preparation  of  flour.  This  gives  to 
wheat  bran  a  nutritive  value  greater  than  its  appear- 
ance would  indicate. 

This  important  kind  of  matter  is,  also,  found  in 
grass,  hay,  and  to  some  extent  in  straw.  Green 
clover,  and  clover  hay,  also  hay  made  of  pea  vines, 
owe  much  of  their  value  to  the  presence  of  protein 
matter.  Cabbage  contains  not  a  little  of  it,  and  is, 
hence,  quite  nutritious.  Rice  contains  less  than  any 
other  grain,  of  this  very  important  element. 

Oil  is  found  to  exist  in  some  form  in  almost  every 
plant,  and  in  almost  all  parts  of  every  plant.  In 
passing  through  the  digestive  organs,  the  vegetable 
oils  undergo  such  changes  as  convert  them  into  the 
varieties  of  fat  peculiar  to  different  animals.  Those 
grains  which  abound  most  in  oily  matter,  within 
certain  limits,  are  best  fitted  for  food,  where  fatten- 
ing is  the  leading  object.  Some  seeds,  such  as  those 
of  flax,  hemp  and  cotton,  contain  too  much  oil  to  be 
fed  alone.  These,  when  ground  into  meal,  and  have 
their  oil  pressed  out  by  machinery,  the  cake  wrhich 
is  left,  still  contains  enough  oil,  together  with  starch, 
gluten,  etc.,  to  make  a  valuable  article  of  food  for 
stock. 

Indian  corn  has  a  larger  quantity  of  oil  in  it  than 
is  found  in  the  other  cereal  grains,  having  from  eight 
to  ten  per  cent.  Oats,  which  have  about  five  or  six 
per  cent.,  come  next  in  order.  Wheat  and  rye  contain 
two  or  three  per  cent,  of  oil,  while  rice  and  buckwheat 


Ol<*    AGRICULTURE,  171 

have  not  more  than  one  per  cent.  The  oily  matter 
in  good  hay  ranges  from  two  to  four  per  cent,,  and  it 
is  by  no  means  wanting  in  straw  which  has  been  cut 
in  good  time, 

Woody  fibre,  when  dried,  is  chiefly  indigestible, 
and  yet  serves  an  important  purpose  in  promoting 
the  digestion  of  other  constituents  of  food  with  which 
it  is  mingled,  Its  presence  makes  the  mass  of  food 
porous,  so  as  to  be  easily  penetrated  by  the  fluids  of 
the  digestive  organs,  It  also  keeps  the  stomach  and 
intestines  properly  distended.  Hay  and  straw  aro 
composed,  to  a  great  extent,  of  woody  fibre,  In  grain, 
the  bran  contains  most  of  the  fibre, 

Water  is  a  constituent  of  the  dryest  articles  of 
food.  The  ripest  grain  and  the  dryest  straw  and 
hay,  have  seldom  less  than  eight  to  ten  per  cent,  of 
water  in  them,  Potatoes  contain  about  seventy -five 
per  cent,  of  water,  while  turnips,  and  other  root  crops 
of  similar  kindj  have  as  much  as  eighty- five  per  cent, 
of  water, 

The  mineral  elements  contained  in  food  crops  aro^ 
not  to  be  disregarded  in  estimating  their  value.  The 
animal  system  demands  mineral  as  well  as  vegetable 
elements,  to  promote  its  growth  and  healthy  develop- 
ment. The  bones  must  be  provided  with  phosphate  of 
lime,"  and  the  fluids  of  the  body  with  salts  of  soda  and 
potash.  These  mineral  substances  are  always  found 
in  the  animal  body, 

Of  the  substances  which  give  to  articles  of  food 
the^ir  chief  value,  we  place  the  protein  compounds  first^ 
because  they  do  more  toward  building  up  the  animal 
system  ;  they  are  more  nutritious.  In  fact,  they  are 
often  spoken  of  us  constituting  the  nutritious  part  of 


172  WALL'S    MANUAL 

food.  Starch,  gum  and  sugar  may  be  classed  together", 
since  they  serve  a  like  purpose  in  sustaining  animal 
life.  After  undergoing  digestion,  they  are  all  thrown 
into  the  veins,  where.they  become  a  constituent  part 
of  the  blood,  to  be  consumed  during  respiration, 
They  are  not  less  essential  to  animal  life  than  other 
forms  of  diet ;  yet,  from  their  abundance  in  vegetable 
products,  they  are  not  estimated  at  so  high  a  value 
as  the  protein  and  oily  parts  of  plants. 

To  estimate  the  value  of  the  crop  grown  upon  a 
given  piece  of  ground,  we  must  not  simply  take  into 
account  the  relative  quantities  of  these  three  kinds  of 
food  contained  in  a  given  weight  of  the  crop,  but  the 
quantities  contained  in  the  whole  product  of  the 
land.  A  hundred  pounds  of  potatoes  contain  only 
about  one- eighth  as  much  protein  matter  as  the  same 
weight  of  corn,  one-ninth  as  much  oily  substance  and 
one-third  as  much  starch,  This  shows  that  a  given 
weight  of  potatoes  is  far  inferior  in  value  to  the  same 
weight  of  corn. 

But  when  we  compare  the  products  of  an  acre  of 
land  cultivated  in  corn,  with  the  product  of  an  aero 
cultivated  in  potatoes,  the  case  stands  differently.  In 
order  to  institute  such  a  comparison,  we  may  suppose 
that  an  acre  which  would  yield  sixty  bushels  of  corn, 
or  about  3500  pound  of  corn,  would,  if  properly  culti- 
vated, yield  four  hundred  bushels  of  potatoes,  or 
20,000  pounds.  Thus  we  see  that  the  feeding  value  of 
the  potatoes  on  one  acre  may  greatly  surpass  corn. 

From  the  above  principles  and  facts,  wre  will  find  a 
mixture  of  grain  and  hay,  or  fodder,  as  affording 
probably  the  best  combination  of  those  properties 
which  adapt  food  to  the  use  of  work  animals.  We 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  173 

find  in  these  the  requisite  amount  of  protein  com- 
pounds for  keeping  up  muscular  strength  •  of  starch, 
gum,  and  sugar,  for  supplying  fuel  for  respiration ;  of 
oil,  to  prevent  exhaustion  of  fat ;  and  of  Vegetable 
fibre,  to  prevent  constipation  and  aid  digestion.  The 
perfection  of  horse  provender  is, .perhaps,  found  in 
good  clover  or  timothy  hay,  and  corn  meal ;  the  hay 
being  cut  up  and  mixed  with  the  meal. 

An  occasional  change  of  food  is  promotive  of  health, 
provided  only  wholesome  food  is  always  given.  The 
addition  of  a  little  wheat  or  bran,  or  a  few  potatoes, 
carrots,  beets,  or  pumpkins,  cut  into  fragments,  and 
mixed  with  their  usual  food,  improve  their  health. 
The  effects  will  be  seen  in  a  more  soft  and  pliant 
condition  of  the  skin,  and  in  the  improved,  glossy 
appearance  of  the  hair. 

If  the  object  in  view  is  to  fatten  an  animal  with 
the  greatest  possible  rapidity,  the  chief  point  in 
which  his  food  should  differ  from  that  of  the  growing 
animal,  should  be  in  the  relative  quantity  of  oily 
matter  contained  in  it.  While  it  should  be  adapted 
to  sustain,  and  even  increase  the  muscular  and  mem- 
braneous parts  of  the  body,  it  should  be  more  especially 
adapted  to  the  filling  up  of  the  fat  tissues.  It,  there- 
fore, contains  as  much  oil  as  is  consistent  with 
healthful  digestion. 

AYe  have  seen  that  com  is  more  abundantly  supplied 
with  oily  matter  than  any  other  of  the.  grains 
commonly  used  in  feeding.  Next  to  it,  the  oat  is 
most  prominent.  There  are  some  other  seeds,  such 
as^flax  seed,  cotton  seed  and  rape  sood  which  abound 
still  more  in  oil,  but,  as  before  stated,  they  contain 
far  too  much  to  bo  wholesome  when  fed  alone  ;  but 


174  WALL'S    MANUAL 

they  are  sometimes  advantageously  mixed  with  forms 
of  food  which  are  deficient  in  oil.  The  grasses, 
'whether  eaten  green  or  as  hay,  have  oil  enough  to 
make  them  highly  valuable  for  fattening  stock. 

"PREPARATION  OF  FOOD  FOR  STOCK. 

There  are  some  important  points  involved  in  the 
preparation  of  food  which  demand  the  farmers  atten- 
tion. Economy  in  feeding  requires  not  only  the 
right  kind  of  food,  but  also  such  preparation  as  will 
give  the  food  its  greatest  value.  It  must  be  in  such 
condition  that  the  animals  to  be  fed  will  rel'sh  it; 
that  they  will  consume  it  entirely  without  waste,  and 
that  it  shall  all  be  digested,  and  thus  fitted  for  the 
purposes  it  is  intended  to  serve. 

We  often  see  provender  rejected  by  cattle,  because 
its  condition  is  that  of  coarse,  dry,  hard,  stalks  or 
straw  difficult  to  masticate,  and  often  insipid,  when 
eaten  alone.  Again  we  see  choice  portions  of  hay 
and  fodder  picked  out  by  horses,  and  the  remainder 
pulled  down  and  trodden  under  foot.  Then  we 
often  find  whole  grains  passed  through  animals,  as 
may  be  seen  in  the  droppings  of  cattle,  when  fed  on 
unground  corn,  or  of  horses,  when  fed  on  unground 
oats.  To  avoid  such  waste,  we  must  pay  attention  to 
the  most  economical  means  of  reducing  provender  to 
the  best  and  most  palatable  condition. 

The  means  best  adapted  to  the  preparation  of  food 
are  cutting,  grinding,  mixing  and  boiling  or  steaming. 
Cutting  aids  both  mastication  and  digestion.  The 
question  here  arises  :  "  Will  it  pay  ?  "  This  must  be 
decided  by  the  circumstances  of  the  case.  If  the 
farmer  has  a  great  deal  more  straw  and  fodder  than 


OF    AGRICULTURE  175 

his  stock  will  consume,  and  wishes  to  use  the  excess 
as  litter  to  absorb  liquid  manure,  lie  may  not  find 
any  economy  in  cutting  the  food.  And  even  in  the 
case  of  feeding  hay,  if  the  supply  is  abundant  and 
price  low,  as  is  frequently  the  case  in  grass-growing 
regions,  it  may  be  more  economical  to  feed  it  whole, 
even  with  considerable  waste,  than  to  expend  upon  it 
the  necessary  labor  to  cut  it  up.  In  sections  of 
country  where  such  provender  is  scarce,  or  where 
there  is  a  sufficient  demand  for  it,  to  keep  up  the 
price  good,  "  cutters"  will  be  among  the  most  econom- 
ical implements  on  the  farm.  And  they  are  no  less 
so  in  towns  and  cities  when  horses  and  cows  arc  fed . 
at  considerable  cost. 

Grinding  sustains  very  much  the  same  relation  to 
grain  that  cutting  docs  to  long  forage ;  but,  as  grain 
is  more  readily  transported  than  other  products  of 
the  farm,  economy  in  its  use  becomes  more  highly 
important.  Grinding  is  thought  by  many  experienced 
farmers  to  add  from  twenty  to  thirty  per  cent,  to 
the  nutritive  value  of  grain  when  fed  to  hogs  or 
horses,  and  from  forty  to  fifty  per  cent,  when  fed  to 
cows.  The  cow  masticates  grain  much  less  com- 
pletely than  either  the  hog  or  the  horse.  In 
autumn,  before  corn  has  become  hard,  there 
is  but  little  advantage  in  grinding  it  for  hogs. 
Mixing  may  be  added  to  cutting  and  grinding  with 
marked  advantage.  When  horses  or  cattle  are  fed  on 
any  kind  of  long  forage  (hay,  straw,  fodder  or 
shucks),  together  with  meal  or  bran,  the  former 
should  be  finely  cut,  and  the  latter  mixed  with  it — 
w^ater  enough  being  added  to  make  the  meal  or  bran 
adhere.  There  will  then  a  double  advantage  arise  j 


176  w  ALL'S    MANUAL 

first,  of  having  the  whole  completely  eaten  up  with- 
out waste ;  and,  secondly,  more  perfectly  masticated 
and  digested.  A  similar  advantage  arises  from 
cutting  beets,  turnips,  carrots,  pumpkins,  etc.,  and 
mixing  them  with  meal. 

In  localities  remote  from  the  sea  shore,  where 
vegetation  affords  too  little  of  the  salts  of  soda  to 
supply  the  demands  of  the  animal  fluids,  common 
salt  should  be  mixed  with  the  food,  or  else  a  supply 
kept  in  a  sheltered  place,  so  that  stock  may  get  it 
when  they  want  it.  From  four  to  five  quarts 
sprinkled  on  a  ton  of  hay  or  fodder,  when  stored 
away,  will  greatly  improve  its  quality  and  aid  in  its 
preservation.  A  small  quantity  of  salt  is  beneficial 
to  hogs,  if  given  regularly,  but  large  doses  are  very 
poisonous. 

Boiling  and  steaming  render  substances  more 
soluble,  and  in  that  way  promote  digestion.  Steam- 
ing may  be  profitably  applied  to  hay  when  fed  to 
young  animals,  and  to  sheep,  whether  old  or  young. 
Green  grass  is  more  valuable  than  hay  made  from  it. 
In  making  hay  there  arc  changes  produced  in  the 
stalk  and  blades,  partly  physical  and  partly  chemical. 
Among  these  changes  is  the  greater  insolubility  of 
the  fibre.  This  makes  it  indigestible.  Steaming 
reduces  it  back  to  a  condition  somewhat  similar  to 
that  of  green  grass. 

Boiling  may  be  applied  to  grain,  either  whole  or 
ground.  It  renders  the  starch  more  soluble  ;  and,  if 
in  the  case  of  meal,  a  slight  fermentation  is  produced 
before  boiling,  a  large  portion  of  the  starch  will  be 
changed  to  dextrine.  This  is  one  of  the  stops  in  the 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  177 

progress  of  digestion  already  made.  Roots  should 
generally  be  boiled  or  steamed. 

If  our  object  is  to  make  food  perform  its  office  as 
rapidly  as  possible,  that  is,  if  we  wish  it  to  cause 
rapid  growth  and  rapid  fattening,  the  most  digestible 
condition  is  the  best  In  such  cases  the  animals 
should  be  kept  comfortable  and  quiet,  and  there  will 
be  but  little  waste  of  food.  Boiling  is  especially 
adapted  to  hogs,  and  almost  indispensable  to  the 
thrifty  growth  of  young  pigs. 

For  horses  and  work  oxen  the  boiling  of  meal  is  a 
disadvantage.  The  digestion  then  goes  on  too  rapidly, 
If  the  grain  is  ground,  and  mixed  with  cut  hay  or 
straw,  the  digestion  is  made  complete,  and  goes  on 
more  slowly.  In  this  way  the  digestive  organs  are 
not  so  quickly  left  inactive,  and  the  sensation  of 
hwrjcrer  is  not  so  soon  produced. 

CARE    OF    STOCK. 

Farmers  lose  more  in  the  Southern  States  by  the 
careless  treatment  of  stock  than  by  carelessness  in 
anything  else.  Hundreds  of  dollars  are  often  lost  in 
this  way,  which  might  readily  have  been  saved  by  a 
little  timely  attention.  Young  animals,  which  require 
more  attention  than  all  others,  are  most  frequently 
neglected,  both  as  to  shelter  and  food.  Many  in  this 
way  are  lost,  and  many  others  so  much  stunted  as 
never  to  regain  their  full  vigor.  Every  farmer  will 
find  it  to  his  interest  to  give  special  attention  to  his 
colts,  calves  and  pigs, 

HORSES. 

The  stables  should  be  well  lighted,  well  ventilated, 

Pure,  fresh  air  is  not  less  important  for  any  animal 

8* 


178  WALL'S    MANUAL 

tluin  good  wholesome  food.  The  lungs  are  capable 
of  transmitting  other  gases,  besides  oxygen,  to  the 
blood.  If  stables  are  not  well  aired,  the  horses 
necessarily  breathe  ammonia  and  other  affluvia  in 
mixture  with  the  confined  air  in  which  they  live. 
This  will  soon  enfeeble  their  health.  Ventilation 
and  the  sprinkling  of  plaster,  or  woods  mold  in 
their  stalls,  is  the  remedy. 

The  temperature  of  stables  should  not  bo  disre- 
garded. They  should  be  neither  too  warm  nor  too 
cold.  If  they  are  very  warm,  the  horses  become 
severely  chilled  when  brought  out  in  the  cold  air. 
If  very  cold,  the  waste  of  animal  heat  requires  a 
largely  increased  consumption  of  grain  food.  Kind- 
ness does  more  to  bring  animals  completely  under 
the  control  of  man  than  any  and  all  the  other  means; 
and,  of  all  animals,  the  horse  is  the  most  sensitive  to 
kind  treatment.  When  colts  arc  treated  with  a  kind 
hand  from  the  very  commencement  of  life,  if  dealt 
with  gently  when  first  trained  to  the  saddle  or 
'harness,  they  seldom  give  their  owners  much  trouble, 
and  are  afterwards  more  safe  and  useless. 

CATTLE. 

Dry,  clean  sheds,  well  littered,  and  opening  toward 
the  south,  make  the  best  protection  for  horned  cattle 
in  the  winter.  In  very  cold,  wet  weather,  it  may  be 
wTell  to  confine  them  to  their  shelters ;  but  generally 
in  fair  weather  they  thrive  better  if  they  have  the 
use  of  an  open  lot,  supplied  with  corn  stalksr  straw 
or  leaves,  to  keep  down  the  mud  and  make  manure. 
When  cattle  are  to  be  fattened  they  should  be  kept 
as  quiet  as  possible.  If  allowed  to  run  at  large  they 


OP     AGRICULTURE.  179 

take  too  much  exorcise,  and  thus  waste  both  muscle 
and  fat.  This  plan,  of  course,  cannot  be  pursued 
when  cattle  run  on  pasture  while  fattening. 

HOGS. 

These  are  the  most  neglected  of  all  domestic 
animals  in  the  Southern  States.  Many  a  poor  hog 
never  knows  what  it  is  to  enjoy  a  comfortable  shelter 
during  the  whole  of  his  precarious  existence.  There 
is  scarcely  any  animal  more  sensitive  to  the  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold.  We  see  at  once  the  importance  of 
having  them  provided  with  a  comfortable  shelter 
against  the  hot  suns  of  summer,  and  the  cold  winds 
of  winter. 


HABITS. 

Bad  fences  are  the  cause  of  bad  habits  ;  good  fences 
are  sometimes  the  cure,  but  always  the  preventive. 
Good  enclosures  are  economical.  Almost  every 
•rickety  fence  on  a  farm  is  the  cause  of  more  loss  of 
time  and  crops,  in  a  few  years,  than  would  build  a 
new,  substantial  fence.  If  your  fences  are  always 
kept  in  good  order,  your  stock  will  never  learn  bad 
habits. 


CHAPTER   XXII. 

CONCLUSION    TO    TART    FIRST. 

The  life  of  the  farmer,  like  that  of  men  in  otner 
pursuits,  must  have  its  toil's,  its  trials,  its  perplexities, 
and  its  disappointments;  but  it  has,  at  the  same  time, 


180  WALL'S    MANUAL 

rare  sources  of  pleasure  and  comfort.  It  is  the  most 
independent  of  ail  departments  of  industry.  It  is 
true,  there  is  a  mutual  dependence  pervading  all  the 
classes  of  society,  but  none  have  to  rely  so  little  on 
the  capricious  patronage  of  their  fellow-man  as  the 
successful  cultivators  of  the  soil.  Every  farmer 
should  take  a  pride  in  his  ennobling  profession;  he 
should  feel  that  he  is  a  member  of  that  class  upon 
which  our  country  is  chiefly  dependent  for  its  wealth 
and  prosperity.  The  farming  interests  lie  at  the 
foundation  of  our  national  greatness.  The  farmers 
nourish,  and  enrich  the  nation. 

The  land- holders  of  our  country  are  the  conserva- 
tors of  the  present  patriotism.  They  are  always  the 
most  stable  and  reliable  citizens  of  this  or  any  other 
land.  Ko  other  class  of  the  people  have  their 
interests  Bo  closely  and  completely  identified  with 
the  general  and  permament  good  of  every  part  of 
our  country — none  can  be  more  warmly  attached  to. 
their  native  soil — and  none  are  found  more  ready  to 
raise  the  stiong  arm  of  resistance  against  oppression, 
from  whatever  source  it  may  come.  Of  course,  we 
speak  here  of  the  practical  and  intelligent  farmer. 
The  man  of  mind — one  who  carries  his  brains  with 
him  to  his  fields,  and  who  knows,  or  seeks  to  know, 
the  "why"  and  the  "  wherefore"  for  all  the  operations 
of  nature  on  his  fmrm — one  who  has  more  mind  than 
the  senseless  clod  he  crushes  under  his  heel.  He 
puts  in  practice  the  deductions  drawn  from  science 
and  experience,  and  intelligently  makes  subservent 
to  his  will,  all  the  aid  which  science  and  the  arts  can 
yield  him.  All  th;  clap-trap  about  it  being  necessary 
to  work  the  ground  with  his  own  hands,  to  be  a 


OP     AGRICULTURE.  181 

practical  farmer,  is  absolutely  absurd.  We  question 
whether  Morse,  the  inventor  of  the  magnetic  tele- 
graph, could  make  with  his  own  hands,  even  one  of 
the  screws,  required  for  his  instrument ;  but  he  had  the 
mind  to  plan  and  direct,  and  procured  experienced 
instrument  makers  to  do  the  work,  We  doubt  very 
much  whether  Stephenson  (the  celebrated  English 
engineer),  could  make  even  a  rivet,  to  fasten  the  tubes 
together  in  his  great  iron,  tubular  bridge  ;  yet  he  had 
the  intelligence  to  comprehend,  and  the  will  to  have 
executed,  one  of  the  most  magnificent  structures  that 
ever  astonished  the  eyes  of  a  wondering  world. 

Can  we  say  such  men  are  not  practical,  because 
they  cannot  make  a  screw,  or  a  small  rivet  of  iron  ? 
Their  work  stand  the  test  of  practicability.  Such 
men  are  the  practical  men  of  the  world,  who  can 
by  deep  thought  and  study,  harness  the  very 
lightnings  of  heaven,  and  overcome  all  physical 
obstructions  in  nature.  We  cannot  forbear  inserting 
in  this  place,  a  parallel  drawn  between  two  farmers, 
taken  from  George  E.  Warren's  Elements  of  Agricul- 
ture, a  work  well  worthy  the  perusal  of  every  farmer. 

Who  is  the  practical  farmer?'1  Let  us  look  at  two 
pictures,  and  decide.  Here  is  a  farm  of  one  hundred 
acres,  in  ordinary  condition.  It  is  owned  and  tilled 
by  a  hard-working  man,  who,  in  the  busy  season, 
employs  one  or  two  assistants.  The  farm  is  free 
from  debt,  but  it  does  not  produce  an  abundant 
income ;  therefore,  its  owner  cannot  afford  to  purchase 
the  best  implements,  or  make  other  needed  improver 
merits  ;  besides,  he  don't  believe  in  such  things.  His 
father  was  a  good,  solid  farmer ;  so  was  his  grand- 
father ;  and  so  is  he,  or  thinks  he  is,  He  is  satisfied 


182  W  A  L  L  '  S     M  A  N  U  A  L 

that  "the  good  old  way"  is  best,  and  sticks  to  it.  lie 
works  from  morning  till  night,  from  spring  till  fall. 
In  the  winter,  he  rests  as  much  as  his  lessened  duties 
will  allow.  During  this  time,  he  reads  little,  or 
nothing.  Least  of  all,  does  he  read  about  farming. 
He  don't  want  to  learn  how  to  dig  potatoes  from  a 
book.  Book  farming  is  all  nonsense.  Many  other 
similar  ideas  keep  him  from  agricultural  reading. 
His  house  is  comfortable,  and  his  barns  are  quite  as 
good  as  his  neighbors',  while  his  farm  gives  him  a 
living.  It  is  true,  that  his  soil  does  not  produce  as 
much  as  it  did  ten  years  ago,  but  prices  are  better, 
and  he  is  satisfied.  Let  us  look  at  his  premises,  and 
see  how  his  affairs  are  managed.  First,  examine  the 
land.  Well,  it  is  good,  fair  soil ;  some  of  it  a  little 
springy,  but  it  is  not  to  be  called  wet.  When  first 
laid  down,  will  produce  a  ton  and  a  half  of  hay  to 
to  the  acre — it  used  to  produce  two  tons.  There  are 
some  stones  and  stumps  on  the  land,  but  not  enough, 
in  his  estimation,  to  do  harm.  The  plowed  fields  are 
pretty  good ;  they  wrill  produce  thirty-five  bushels  of 
corn,  thirteen  bushels  of  wheat,  or  thirty  bushels  of 
oats  per  acre,  when  the  season  is  not  dry.  His  father 
used  to  get  more ;  but,  somehow  the  weather  is  not  as 
favorable  as  it  was  in  old  times.  Ho  has  thought  of 
raising  root  crops,  but  they  take  more  labor  than  he 
can  afford  to  hire.  Over  in  the  back  part  of  the 
land,  there  is  a  muck-hole,  which  is  the  only  piece  of 
worthless  land  on  the  farm.  Now*  let  us  look  at  the 
barns  and  barn-yards.  The  stables  are  pretty  good  ; 
there  are  some  wide  cracks  in  the  siding,  but  they 
help  to  ventilate,  and  make  it  healthy  for  the  cattle. 
The  manure  is  thrown  out  of  the  back  window,  and 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  183 

is  left  in  piles  under  the  eaves  of  the  barn.  The  rains 
and  sun  makes  it  nice  to  handle.  The  cattle  have  to 
go  some  distance  for  water,  and  this  gives  them 
exercise.  All  of  the  cattle  are  not  kept  in  the  stable; 
the  fattening  stock  are  kept  in  various  fields,  where 
the  hay  is  fed  out  to  them  from  the  stack.  The 
barn-yard  is  often  occupied  by  cattle,  and  is  covered 
with  their  manure,  where  it  lies  until  carted  on*  to 
the  land.  In  the  shed,  are  the  tools  of  the  farm, 
consisting  of  carts,  plows — not  deep  plows ;  this 
farmer  thinks  it  best  to  have  roots  near  the  surface 
of  the  soil,  where  they  can  have  the  benefit  of  the 
sun's  heat — a  harrow,  hoes,  rakes,  etc.  These  tools 
are  all  in  °-ood  order ;  and,  unlike  those  of  his  less 
prudent  neighbor,  they  are  protected  from  the 
weather.  The  crops  are  cultivated  with  plow  and 
hoc,  as  they  have  been  since  the  land  was  cleared, 
and  as  they  always  will  be,  until  this  man  dies. 

Here  is  a  "practical  farmer"  of  the  present  day. 
Hard-working,  out  of  debt,  and  economical — of 
dollars  and  cents,  if  not  of  soil  and  manures.  He  is 
a  better  farmer  than  two-thirds  of  the  three  million 
farmers  in  the  coimiry.  He  is  one  o.  the  best  farmes 
in  his  county,  there  are  but  few  better  in  the  State. 
He  represents  the  better  average  class  of  his  profes- 
sion. With  all  this,  he  is,  in  matters  relating  to  his 
business,  an  unreading,  unthinking  man.  He  knows 
nothing  of  the  first  principles  of  farming,  and  is 
successful  by  the  indulgence  of  nature,  not  because  he 
understands  her,  and  is  able  to  make  the  most  of  her 
assjstance. 

This  is  an  unpleasant  fact,  but  it  is  one  which 
cannot  be  denied.  We  do  not  say  this  to  disparage 


184  WALL'S    MANUAL 

the  farmer,  but  to  arouse  him  to  a  realization  of  his 
position,  and  of  his  power  to  improve  it.  But  let  us 
see  where  he  is  wrong. 

He  is  wrong  in  thinking  his  land  does  not  need 
draining.  lie  is  wrong  in  being  satisfied  with  one 
and  a  half  tons  of  hay  to  the  acre,  when  he  might 
easily  get  two  and  a  half.  He  is  wrong  in  reaping 
less  than  his  father  did,  when  he  should  get  more. 
He  is  wrong  in  ascribing  to  the  weather,  and  similar 
causes,  what  is  due  to  the  actual  impoverishment  of 
his  soil.  He  is  wrong  in  not  raising  turnips,  carrotp, 
and  other  roots,  which  his  winter  stock  so  much 
need,  'when  they  might  be  raised  at  a  cost  of  less 
than  one-third  of  their  value  in  food.  He  is  wrong, 
in  considering  worthless  a  deposit  of  muck,  which  is 
a  mine  of  wealth,  when  properly  employed.  He  is 
wrong,  in  the  treatment  of  his  manures,  for  he  loses 
more  than  one- half  their  value  from  evaporation, 
fermentation  and  leaching.  He  is  wrong,  in  not 
adding  to  his  tools  the  deep  surface  plow,  the  subsoil 
plow,  the  cultivator,  and  many  other  implements  of 
improved  construction.  He  is  wrong,  in  cultivating 
with  plow  and  hand  hoe  those  crops  which  could  be 
better  and  more  cheaply  managed  with  the  cultivator 
or  horse-hoe.  He  is  right  in  a  few  things  ;  and  but 
a  few,  as  he  himself  would  admit,  had  he  that 
knowledge  of  his  business,  which  he  could  obtain  in 
the  leisure  hours  of  a  single  winter.  Still  he  thinks 
himself  a  practical  farmer. 

In  twenty  years,  we  shall  have  fewer  such,  for  our 
young  men  have  the  mental  capacity,  and  mental 
energy,  necessary  to  raise  them  to  the  highest  point 
of  practical  education,  and  to  that  point  they  arc 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  185 

gradually,  but  surely  rising.  We  have  far  fewer 
now,  than  twenty  years  ago. 

Let  us  now  place  this  same  farm  in  the  hands  of 
an  educated  and  thinking  cultivator;  and  at  the  end 
of  five  years,  look  at  it  again. 

He  has  sold  one-half  of  it,  and  cultivates  but  fifty 
acres.  The  money  for  which  the  other  fifty  were 
sold  has  been  used  in  the  improvement  of  the  farm. 
The  land  has  been  undcrdrained,  and  shows  the 
many  improvements  consequent  on  such  treatment. 
The  stones  and  stumps  have  been  removed,  leaving 
the  surface  of  the  soil  smooth,  and  allowing  the  use- 
of  the  subsoil  plow,  which,  with  the  under  drains, 
has  more  than  doubled  the  productive  power  of  the 
farm.  Sufficient  labor  is  employed  to  cultivate, 
with  improved  tools,  extensive  root  crops,  and  they 
invariably  give  a  largo  yield.  The  grass  land 
produces  a  yearly  average  of  two  and  a-  half  tons  of 
hay.  From  eighty  to  one  hundred  bushels  of  corn, 
thirt}'  bushels  of  wheat,  and  forty-five  bushels  of 
oats,  arc  the  average  crops  gathered.  The  soil  has 
been  put  in  the  best  possible  condition,  while  it  is. 
regularly  supplied  with  manures  containing  everything 
taken  away  in  the  abundant  crops.  The  principle 
that  all  mineral  matter  sold  away  must  be  brought 
back  again,  is  never  lost  sight  of  in  the  application 
of  manures.  The  worthless  much-bed  was  retained, 
and  is  made  worth  a  dollar  a  load  to  the  compost- 
heap,  especially  as  the  land  requires  an  increase  of 
vegetable  matter.  The  manure  from  stalks  and 
barn  ^ards  is  carefully  composted,  either  under  a 
shed  constructed  for  the  purpose,  or  is  thrown  into  a 
cellar  below,  where  the  hogs  mix  it  with  a  largo 


18G  WALL'S    MANUAL 

amount   of    muck,    which    has   been    in,    after  being 
thoroughly  decomposed  by  the  lime  and  salt  mixture. 

This  farmer  reads  and  thinks;  his  knowledge  of 
the  reasons  of  various  agricultural  effects  enables  him 
to  discard  the  injudicious  suggestion  of  the  book- 
farmers^  and  uneducated  dreamers,  and  take  only  the 
facts  worthy  of  experiment. 

Here  are  two  specimen  farmers.  Neither  descrip- 
tion is  over-drawn.  The  first  is  much  more,  careful 
in  his  operations,  than  the  majority  of  our  farmers. 
The  last,  is  no  better  than  many  who  may  be  found 
in  every  State  in  the  Union.  We  appeal  to  the 
common  sense  of  the  reader  of  this  work,  to  know 
which  of  the  two  is  the  practical  farmer — let  him 
imitate  either,  as  his  judgment  will  dictate. 

The  author  is  aware  that  hardly  any  class  of  men 
arc  so  difficult  to  be  reached  as  farmers,  and  the 
undertaking  is  hazardous.  They  arc  terribly  afraid 
of  being  "  humbugged"  and  thereby  very  often 
humbug  themselves.  For  years,  this  little  work  has 
been  in  the  thoughts,  and  on  the  mind  of  the  author. 
His  own  experience  as  a  farmer,  combined  with 
study  and  observation,  since  he  lost  his  leg  in  the 
late  war,  enables  him  to  submit  it  to  the  farmers  of 
the  South,  for  their  most  careful  attention. 

Although  farmers,  as  a  class,  are  hard  to  convince, 
yet,  no  class  of  men  are  so  open  to  conviction,  so 
alive  to  manly  principles,  so  susceptible  of  good 
impressions,  when  the  effort  to  aid  them  is  judicious, 
and  worthy  of  attention. 

END    OF    TART    FIRST. 


:PA_;RT  n. 


APPENDIX. 

Tho  author,  in  presenting  this  brief  outline  of  AGRICULTURAL 
CUKMISTRY,  as  an  Appendix  to  Part  I  of  this  book,  wishes  to  show 
tho  "why  and  wherefore,"  certain  fertilizers,  manures,  composts 
and  stimulants,  are  applied  to  the  soil,  so  that  the  farmer  may  see 
for  himself,  the  best  articles  to  use,  as  well  as  those  which  should 
bo  avoided.  Too  great  a  degree  of  caution  cannot  be  observed,  in 
the  use  of  stimulating  fertilizers ;  nor  is  it  necessary  that  they 
should  be  applied  in  excessive  quantities. 


II. 

O?O 


CHAP  TEE   I. 

AS    APPLIED    TO    THE    SOIL. 
THE     SOIL,     HOW     FORMED,     ETC.,     ETC. 

Agricultural  Chemistry  aims  to  explain  all  the 
actions  of  earth,  air,  and  water  upon  plants.  It 
refers  to  all  their  chemical  relations,  to  the  geology, 
minerology  and  chemistry  of  soil. 

Soil  is  the  loose  surface  material  covering  rocks,  in 
which  the  roots  of  plants  are  fixed,  and  is  supposed 
to  be  formed  by  their  decay.  Both  are  to  be  classed 
by  their  origin,  The  origin  of  rocks  refers  not  only 
to  the  mode  of  their  first  formation,  but  to  their 
subsequent  arrangement.  The  origin  of  all  rocks, 
geology  teaches,  is  from  the  matter  of  the  globe. 
Referring  rocks  to  their  origin,  they  are  divisible 
into  two  classes,  viz  ; 

First  —  Igneous,  or  those  formed  by  fire, 
Second  —  Aqueous,  or  those  formed  by  water, 
This    division    relates    both    to    the    origin    and 
distribution.       In     their     origin,    rocks    are    truly 
igneous,    or  from   fire.     In   their  distribution,   they 


100  W  A  L  L  }  S     M  A  N  if  A  t, 

are  aqueous,  or  from  water,  This  is  the  Onty 
division  necessary  to  the  farmer.  It  is  the  division 
taught  and  demanded  by  agricultural  geology < 

The  first  class  (or  those  from  fire),  includes  all 
highly  crystalline  rocks,  such  as  granite,  gneiss^ 
sienite,  greenstone ;  it  includes,  also,  basalt  and  lava. 
The  products  of  volcanos,  both  ancient  and  modern, 
should  be  placed  ih  the  same  class, 

The  second  (or  that  from  water),  includes  sand, 
gravel,  rounded  and  rolled  stones  of  all  sizes,  pudding 
stones,  conglomerates,  sand- stones,  and  slates,  When 
these  various  substances  are  examined^  a  large  part 
of  the  sand  is  found  to  be  composed  essentially  of 
the  ingredients  of  the  igneous  rocks,  This  is  true, 
also,  of  sand- stone,  slate,  and  boulders. 

FORMATION     OF     DEPOSITS.      . 

There  are  large  deposits,  or  formations,  in  various 
districts,  composed  almost  entirely  of  some  of  the 
chemical  constituents  of  the  igneous  rocks^  united 
with  an  ingredient  of  air,  These  constituents  are 
lime  and  magnesia ;  the  portion  derived  from  air  is 
carbonic  acid,  forming,  by  their  unioiij  carbonates  of 
lime  and  magnesia.  Marble,  limestone^  and  chalk,? 
belong  to  this  formation,  The  lime,  originally  a 
part  of  the  igneous  rocks,  has  been  separated,  and 
combined  with  air  by  animals  and  plants,  by  a  vital 
process  called  secretion.  The  modern  production  of 
the  carbonate  of  lime,  is  still  going  on  under  the 
forms  of  shells  and  corals.  But  limestone  is  truly 
a  salt,  rather  than  a  rock,  and  should  be  classed  with 
the  salts. 

The  transportation,  or  distribution  of  the  soil,  by 


OF    AGRICULTURE.  191 

the  effects  of  water,  is  a  fact  so  well  established,  that 
it  needs  only  to  be  mentioned.  There  has  been 
an  universal  mingling  of  the  loose  materials  of  soil, 
derived  from  the  worn  down  rocks  and  decayed 
vegetable  matter.  Great  uniformity  of  the  chemical 
composition,  characterizes  soils,  as,  also,  more  or  less; 
the  rocks,  from  which  they  have  been  formed, 


CHAPTER    II. 

THE  CHEMICAL  INGREDIENTS  OP  ROCKS  AND  SOILS, 

The  geologist,  mineralogist,  and  the  chemist,  eacri 
view  rocks  with  a  different  eye.  The  geologist  regards- 
the  rocky  mass  ;  the  mineralogist,  the  simple  minerals- 
composing  the  rocks  >  the  chemist,  the  simple  elements 
which  compose  the  mineral. 

Elements  are  substances  which  as  yet  have  not 
been  proved  to  be  compound ;  as  oxygen  and  hydrogen 
among  the  gases,  iron  and  lead  among  the  metals. 

The  only  point  of  view  the  farmer  takes  is  that  of 
the  chemist.  His  pole-star  is  fruit  and  progress; 
and  his  mind,  directed  by  the  chemist,  is  taught  the 
nature  and  mode  of  action  of  the  several  elements  of 
the  minerals, 

As4  far  as  known,  seven  simple  minerals  compose 
tho  most  important  rocks,  viz :  quartz,  mica,  feldspar, 
talc,  hornblende,  augite  and  carbonate  of  lime.  Other 
minerals  are  found  in  rocks,  but  the&e  seven  compose 


1(J2  WALL'S    MANUAL 

all  those  called  geological  formations,  and  which  form 
the  crust  of  the  earth. 

The  chemical  constitution  of  rocks,  the  nature, 
properties  and  relations  of  their  elements,  prove  to  be 
of  the  highest  importance  to  the  farmer,  when  it  is 
known  that  the  elements  of  these  seven  minerals  are 
also  the  earthy  part  or  ashes  of  all  plants. 

The  number  of  elements  which  chemistry  has 
detected,  is  sixty-two.  These  are  classed  as  metallic 
or  unmetallic.  Of  these,  some  are  gaseous,  others 
earthy,  most  of  them  combustible, 

ELEMENTARY     BODIES. 

Of  the  simple  elementary  bodies,  thirteen  chiefly 
compose  rocks  and  the  mineral  proportion  of  the  soil. 
Six  of  this  number  are  unmetallic,  and  seven  are 
metallic  substances,  viz, : 


The  unmetallic  are: 

1.  Oxygen, 

2.  Hydrogen, 

3.  Silicon, 

4.  Carbon, 

5.  Sulphur, 

G.  Phosphorus. 


The  metallic  are  : 

1.  Potassium, 

2.  Sodium, 

3.  Calcium, 

4.  Magnesium, 

5.  Aluminium, 

G.  Ferrum  or  Iron, 


7.  Manganese. 

Chemistry  tells  us  how  these  gaseous  and  metallic 
substances  combine,  and  the  elements  they  form  after 
combination.  Oxygen  has  a  wide  range  of  affinities. 
It  combines  with  the  unmetallic  substances — its  com- 
pounds are  called  oxides — thus : 

Oxygen  combined  with  Hydrogen  forms  Water. 

"      Silicon  "        Silicic  Acid. 

"      Carbon  "        Carbonic  Acid. 

"      Sulphur          "       Sulphuric  Acid. 
"      Phosphorus  "        Phophoric  Acid. 

Again,  with  metallic  substances  : 

Oxygen  combined  with  Potassium  forms  Potash. 
"      Sodium       -    "       Soda. 
u      Calcium  "        Lime. 

"  Magnesium    "       Magnesia,  etc. 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  193 

BASES. 

The  oxydcs  of  metals  are  termed  bases*  Potash, 
soda,  lime  and  magnesia  are  termed  alkiline  bases ; 
the  others,  metalic  bases.  Acids  and  bases  unite  and 
form  salts  in  the  soil.  Thus,  these  unmetallic  sub- 
stances unite  with  metals,  and  form  a  class  of 
compounds  of  the  highest  importance  in  agriculture. 
It  is  seen,  therefore,  that  the  elements  composing 
rocks,  are  reduced  to  salts  and  metalloid  compounds. 
The  peculiar  character  of  the  salts  formed  by  silicic 
acid,  will  be  easier  understood  by  separating  these 
from  the  others  under  the  name  of  silicates.  These 
form  the  great  bulk  of  the  earths  crust  The  com- 
pounds of  silicic  acid  would  hardly  be  recognized  as 
salts,  in  the  common  and  popular  sense  of  the  term; 
with  which  is  associated  the  idea  of  softness  and 
solubility.  Carbonic,  sulphuric  and  phosphoric  acids, 
form  with  bases,  salts,  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  term. 

The  elements  which  compose  the  silicates  may  be 
named  in  pairs,  to  aid  the  memory.  First,  the  alkalies, 
potash  and  soda.  Second,  alkaline  earths — lime  and 
magnesia.  Third,  earths — silica  or  sand,  and  alu- 
mina. Thus,  we  have  two  alkalies,  two  alkaline 
earths,  and  two  earths. 

EXPERIMENTS  —  SILICA. 

The  term  salt,  silicate  and  metalloid  compound, 
may  need  further  explanation.  Pearl  ash  and  vinegar, 
are  well  known  substances.  One  is  an  alkali,  the 
othjer  an  acid.  Pearl  ash  has  the  alkaline  properties 
of  a  bitter,  burning  taste,  and  the  power  of  changing 
vegetable  blues  to  green,  and  pink  to  blue.  Vinegar 
has  the  acid  properly  of  a  sour  taste,  and  of  causing 
9 


194  WALL'S    MANUAL 

a  hissing  or  effervescence,  when  poured  on  pearl  ash. 
This  action  ceasing,  there  is  neither  acid  taste  or 
alkaline  properties;  the  character  of  the  vinegar  and 
pearl  ash  has  disappeared ;  the  substances  have  united ; 
they  have  formed  a  new  substance,  termed  a  salt-. 
•  The  fact  to  be  observed  in  the  above  experiment 
is,  that  an  alkali  and  an  acid  mutually  neutralize 
each  other.  The  vinegar  is  popularly  said  in  this 
case,  to  "kill"  the  pearl  ash.  So,  soda,  potash,  lime, 
magnesia,  etc.,  would  all  be  "killed"  or  neutralized  by 
vinegar,  they  would  all  be  dissolved  by  it,  and  lose 
their  distinguishing  character.  In  either  case,  a 
neutral  salt  would  be  formed.  Such  a  class  of  salts 
are  called  acetates,  being  formed  by  alkalies,  alkaline 
earth,  and  metallic  oxydes,  united  with  acetic  acid,  or 
vinegar. 

Silex  or  silica,  or  the  earth  of  flints,  is  in  its  pure 
state,  is  a  perfectly  white,  insipid,  tasteless  powder. 
It  unites  with  bases  in  the  form  of  silicic  acid,  form- 
ing neutral  salts,  termed  silicates.  Thus,  are  formed 
a  large  class,  in  which  are  found  silicates,  potash, 
soda,  lime,  magnesia,  etc.  This  class  forms  the  great 
bulk  of  all  the  rocks  and  soil. 

METALLOID  COMPOUNDS  —  SALTS. 

The  substances  last  mentioned  are  all  metals, 
united  with  oxygenv  They  are  metallic  oxides.  If 
the  oxygen  is  removed  and  replaced  by  carbon, 
sulphur,  or  phosphorus,  the  combinations  are  called 
carburids,  sulphids,  phosphids. 

Metalloid  compounds  are  combinations  of  metal- 
loids with  metals,  in  their  pure  or  unoxydized  state. 

Salts  are  combinations  of  metalloids  with  oxygen 
and  the  metals,  in  their  rusted  or  oxydized  state. 


OF    AGRICULTURE.  195 

The  formation  of  carbonic,  sulphuric,  and  phos- 
phoric acids,  has  been  explained.  [See  article  15.] 
When  these  acids  unite  with  bases,  salts  are  formed, 
called  carbonates,  sulphates,  phosphates. 

Hence,  when  a  substance  is  named,  as  for  example, 
sulphate  of  lime,  a  definite  idea  of  the  nature  of  this 
compound  is.  conveyed.  It  is  at  once  known  to  be  a 
salt,  that  is,  a  sulphate,  that  is,  sulphur  and  oxygen 
united  with  lime.  So  too,  phosphate  of  lime  is  seen 
to  be  a  salt  of  lime, 

The  thirteen  substances  that  enter  into  the  compo- 
sition of  rocks,  [see  article  14,]  are  subject  to  fixed 
laws  in  their  combinations,  viz  : 

They  combine  only  in  definite  proportions,  or  in 
multiples  of  the  same.  The  combining  number  of  a 
compound,  is  the  sum  of  the  combining  numbera  of 
the  composing  elements.  If  we  assume  the  smallest 
Combining  weight,  viz  :  that  of  hydrogen,  as  one,  the 
combining  weight  of  all.  other  dements  may  be 
represented  by  definite  numbers,  expressing  the 
proportions  by  weight  in  which  they  unite,  not  only 
with  hydrogen,  but  also  amongst  themselves.  j.hus, 
when  oxygen  and  hydrogen  unite  to  form  water,  the 
proportions  are  : 


Hydrogen 

Oxygen 

Water 


It  has  been  ascertained  that  the  proportion  in 
which  the  bases  of  the  silicates  combine  with  oxygen, 
are: 

Oxygen  1  eq>,  or  8  with  one  eq.,  21  of  Silicatt,  =  29  Silica  or  sand. 

Alumimen  =  18  Almumina  or  clay. 
Calcium  =  28  Lime. 
Magnesium  =  20  Magnesia. 


Potassium  =  47  Potash. 
Sodium  —  31  Soda, 


196  WALL'S   MANUAL 

When  oxydized  substances  combine  with  an  acid, 
it  is  only  in  these  proportions.  The  numbers  are 
called  equivalents ;  that  is,  47  of  potash  is  equal  in 
saturating  power  to  31  of  soda,  or  28  of  lime, 

The  equivalent  of  sulphur  is  16,  adding  3  equiva- 
lents of  oxygen  or  24,  wo  have  40,  or  the  equivalent 
of  sulphuric  acid.  The  equivalent  of  phosphorus 
is  32,  adding  5  equivalents  of  oxygen,  we  have 
40x32  —  72  phosphoric  acid.  The  equivalent  of 
carbon  is  6x16,  or  2  of  oxygen  =s  22  carbonic  acid. 
Hence,  the  equivalents  of  the  acids  are  40,  72,  22. 
These  acids  combine  with  bases  in  the  above  pro- 
portions, forming  neutral  salts,  or  with  two  or  more 
proportions  of  acid,  forming  super-salts,  or  with  a  still 
larger  proportion  base,  forming  sub- salts ;  thus, 
are  formed  sulphate  of  lime  or  plaster,  28  lime  x40 
sulphuric  acid.  Carbonate  of  lime,  28  lime  x22 
carbonic  acid.  Phosphate  of  lime  has  a  larger 
proportion  of  base,  3  parts  or  84  of  lime  x72 
phosphoric  acid. 

When  the  subject  of  the  composition  of  the  soil  is 
discussed,  the  value  of  this  slight  knowledge  of 
chemical  rotation  and  combining  proportions  is 
manifest. 

SIMPLE    MINERALS. 

Yiewed  by  the  light  of  chemistry,  rocks  are  mostly 
masses  of  silicates.  The  simple  minerals  composing 
most  rocks  are  truly,  only  silicates  in  fixed  proportions. 
The  simple  minerals  are  quartz,  feldspar,  mica,  horn- 
blende, augite,  talc.  In  each  mineral,  the  tbase  is 
combined  with  silica,  which  acts  as  an  acid,  a  com- 
pound or  silicate  is  formed. 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  197 

1.  The  silicate  of  alumina  (clay,  earth),  with  potash, 
forms  feldspar. 

2.  Silicate  alumina  and  lime,  with  magnesia  and 
iron  oxyde,  forms  hornblende. 

3.  The  silicate  of  magnesia,  forms  serpentine  and 
talc,  and  silica  almost  pure  in  quartz. 

This  brings  us  to  the  third  branch  of  our  subject. 
The  mineral  ingredients  of  the  soil,  their  properties 
and  chemical  action. 


CHAP  TEE    III. 

THZ  PROPERTIES  AND  CHEMICAL  ACTION  OP  THE  MINERAL 
INGREDIENTS  OP  THE  SOIL. 

The  bases  of  the  silicates  have  common  properties, 
which  are: 

1.  Alkaline,  as  exhibited  in  potash  and  soda,  and 
in  a  less  degree  in  lime  and  magnesia,  etc. 

2.  They  are  almost  all  soluble  in  water.     Potash 
stands  first  here,  also;  the  solubility  decreases  in  lime, 
and  totally  disappears  in  alumina  and  clay. 

3.  They  have  a  great  affinity  for  carbonic  acid. 
The  order  of  affinity  is  potash,  soda,  lime,  magnesia. 

4.  They  all  have  a  great  affinity  for  water. 

The  metalloids  or  unmctallic  substances,  also,  have 
common  properties : 

1.  They  combine  with  the  pure  base  of  silicates, 
sftid  form  silicinrets,  phosphurets,  carburets  and  sul- 
phurets.  Thus  are  formed  carburet  of  iron  or  plum- 


198  WALL'S   MANUAL 

bago,    sulphuret   of  iron    or   iron   pyrites,    and   the 
sulphuret  of  potassium,  or  the  liver  of  sulphur. 

2.  They    chemically   combine   with    each    other. 
Thus  are  formed  sulphuret  of  carbon,  sulphuret  of 
silicon,  etc. 

3.  They  all  form  acids  by  combining  with  oxygen. 
Thus  are  formed  carbonic,  sulphuric,  phosphoric,  and 
silicic  acids. 

NAMING    ACIDS. 

The  rule  followed  in  naming  acids  is,  that  each  is 
called  after  the  substance  forming  it,  the  metalloids 
having  ous  added,  to  denote  the  weaker,  and  ic  to 
designate  the  stronger  acids,  thus : 

1  sulphur  16x2  of  oxygen  =16x1 6  ==22  sulphurous 
acid.  1  sulphur  16x3  of  oxygen  =  16x24  =  40  sul- 
phuric acid.  In  the  same  way  carbonic  and  phosphoric 
acids  are  formed.  Silica  or  sand  forms  but  one  acid, 
silicic. 

Silicon,  from  which  silicic  acid  or  silica  is  formed, 
requires  a  more  extended  notice.  Silicon,  when  united 
with  oxygen,  forms  pure  rock  crystal,  quartz,  agate, 
cornelian.  It  is  this  that  forms  the  glazed  coating  to 
the  rush  and  the  grasses.  Wheat,  rye,  oats,  cornstalks, 
and  barley  owe  their  support  to  this  covering  of 
silicon  or  sand.  It  cases  the  bamboo  and  rattan  with 
an  armor  of  flint,  from  which,  when  dry,  may  be 
struck  sparks  of  fire. 

Silicon  in  the  purest  state  yet  obtained,  is  a  dull 
brown  powder,  soiling  the  fingers.  It  dissolves  in 
hydro -fluoric  acid  and  in  caustic  potash.  When  heated 
with  dry  potash,  it  is  converted  into  silicic  acid.  Silicic 
acid  exists  in  two  states,  soluble  and  insoluble  in 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  199 

water.     Sulphuret  of  silicon  dissolves  in  water,  and 
gives  silicon  or  sand  in  solution. 

GLASS  —  ANALYSIS    OP    GRANITE. 

The  general  properties  which  silicic  acid  exhibits 
in  combination  are  these,  viz. : 

1.  All  its   compounds  with   excess  of  alkali  are 
caustic,  and  soluble  in  water. 

2.  Those  with  an  excess  of  silicon  or  sand  are  mild 
and  insoluble.     G-lass  is  an  example  of  the  last,  and 
so  are  rocks.     Green  bottle  glass  is  but  a  fused  rock, 
a  mixture  of  the  silicates  of  potash,  soda,  magnesia, 
lime,  and  iron.     These  are  the  silicates  which  have 
been  already  noticed  as  composing  rocks,  and  the 
amount  and  origin  of  those  elements  of  the  soil  can 
now    be    easily    comprehended.      This   is   practical 
ground,  and  shows  the  value  of  the  chemical  analysis 
of  rocks. 

Let  us  take  granite  rock  for  an  example.  See  of 
what  it  is  composed  ? 

ANALYSIS  OP  GRANITE  BOOK. 

Silex  or  Sand 74.84 

Alumina  (or  clay— earth) 12.80 

Pofash 7.48 

Magnesia 99 

Lime 37 

Oxide  of  Iron 1.93 

Oxide  of  Manganese 12 

.100 

Thus,  in  every  one  hundred  pounds  of  granite  we 
have  seven  and  a  half  pounds  of  potash  and  three - 
eighths  of  a  pound  of  lime. 

These  elements  do  not  exist  in  the  soil  free;  they 
exist  as  silicates  or  salts,  which  are  gradually  acted 
upon  by  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  air,  and  by  the  grow 


200  WALL'S   MANUAL 

ing  plants.  The  action  of  the  carbonic  acid  upon 
the  silicates  separates  the  potash  or  the  alkaline  part 
of  the  silicate,  and  makes  it  soluble,  to  become  food 
for  plants. 

The  fact  most  important  for  the  farmer  in  these 
changes  is  that  the  compounds  are  present  in  all  soils, 
becoming  salts  and  food  for  plants.  Whenever  iron 
pyrites  or  sulphuret  of  iron  is  found,  and  it  is  present 
in  nearly  all  soils,  exposure  to  air  and  moisture  acid- 
ifies the  sulphur,  and  forms  oil  of  vitriol  or  sulphuric 
acid.  This  acid  immediately  combines  with  iron  and 
forms  copperas ;  or  with  alumina,  forming  alum ;  or 
with  lime,  forming  sulphate  of  lime  (plaster) ;  or  with 
magnesia,  forming  epsom  salts.  All  these  salts  are 
liable  to  be  decomposed  by  any  soluble  alkali,  as 
carbonate  of  potash,  soda,  etc.,  which  may  be  pro- 
duced by  the  decomposition  of  the  silicates. 

Among  the  most  important  salts  in  the  soil  arising 
from  those  actions,  are  sulphate  of  lime  (or  plaster), 
phosphate  of  lime,  and  of  alumina  and  iron.  The 
sulphate  of  lime  is  partially  soluble,  but  phosphates 
are  more  insoluble,  and  are  always  found  in  soil. 

It  is  not  easily  understood  how  phosphate  of  lime 
exists  in  the  soil,  but  that  it  does  exist  none  can 
doubt.  The  proof  may  be  stated  in  a  few  words, 
Jjoncs  of  all  grazing  animals  contain  about  half  their 
weight  of  the  phosphate  of  lime.  It  can  be  derived  only 
from  their  food,  and  that  from  the  soil.  The  actual 
result  of  chemical  analysis  confirms  this  statement. 
Beets,  carrots,  beans,  peas,  potatoes,  cabbages,  etc., 
afford  phosphate  of  lime,  magnesia  and  potash.  Indian 
corn,  rice,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  rye,  and  cotton  seed 
and  plant,  contain  sulphate  and  phosphate  of  lime. 


OP     AGRICULTURE.  201 

not  only  in  the  grain  and  seed,  but  in  the  straw  and 
stalk.  Every  exact  analysis  of  the  ashes  of  trees, 
shrubs,  and  plants  of  every  kind,  cultivated  or  wild, 
shows  the  presence  of  phosphoric  acid. 

Having  briefly  discussed  the  mineral  ingredients  of 
the  soil  and  their  chemical  action,  we  will  now  turn 
our  attention  to  the  organic  or  vegetable  constituents 
of  the  soil. 


CHAPTER    IY. 

THE   VEGETABLE,    OR    ORGANIC    CONSTITUENTS    OF    THE 
SOIL. 

Soil  consists  of  two  grand  divisions  of  elements: 
inorganic  and  organic.  The  inorganic  are  wholly 
mineral,  formed  by  chemical  action  on  the  metallic 
and  unmetallic  elements  of  rocks.  They  existed 
before  plants  or  animals.  Life  has  not  called  them 
into  existence,  nor  created  them  out  of  the  simple 
constituents.  Organic  elements  are  the  product  of 
living  organs,  or  of  substances  once  endowed  with 
life,  hence  called  organic ;  and,  when  formed,  they 
are  subject  to  chemical  laws.  The  number  of 
elements  in  the  organic  parts  of  the  soil  does  not 
exceed  four,  viz:  oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon,  and 
nitrogen. 

To  have  a  clearer  idea  of  this  subject,  we  will  give 
a  description  of  each  of  these  elements  separately. 
*    Oxygen  (symbol  O  ;  combining  weight  8). 

This  is  one  of  the  most  important,  as  well  as  the 
9* 


202  w  ALL'S   MANUAL 

most  abundant,  of  elementary  substances.  It  enters 
into  the  composition  of  almost  everything  we  use 
around  us.  It  constitutes  eight-ninths  the  weight  of 
water,  and  nearly  one-fifth  of  the  air.  It  is  an 
abundant  clement  in  rocks  and  soil,  and  in  nearly  all 
vegetable  and  animal  substances.  The  presence  of 
oxygon  in  the  air  is  necessary  to  support  combustion, 
and,  also,  to  sustain  life.  A  mixture  of  oxygen  21 
part?,  and  nitrogen  79  parts,  is  the  air  wo  breathe. 
Its  action  upon  the  soil  is  very  beneficial,  and  will  be 
noticed  more  fully  hereafter. 

Hydrogen  (Symbol  II ;  combining  weight  1). 

The  name  of  this  gas  is  derived  from  two  Greek 
words  signifying  "generator  of  water,'7  because  with 
oxygen  it  forms  wrater,  H,  IxO,  8  or  1  part  hydrogen 
and  8  parts  oxygen  forms  water,  =  9.  The  union  of 
hydrogen  and  nitrogen  forms  ammonia,  one  of  the  most 
active  fertilizers  known  to  agriculture. 

Carbon  (Symbol  C ;  combining  weight  6). 

Carbon  is  a  very  important  element  in  nature.  It 
constitutes  the  greater  part  of  both  plants  and 
-inimals.  It  is  the  chief  ingredient  in  the  vast  beds 
of  mineral  coal.  The  diamond  is  the  present  form  of 
carbon.  With  oxygen  it  forms  carbonic  acid ;  thus, 
one  part  of  carbon  added  to  two  parts  of  oxygen,  or 
C,  GxO,  16—22  carbonic  acid,  which  forms  somewhat 
less  than  half  the  weight  of  limestone.  Combustion 
and  respiration  consume  oxygen,  arid  generate 
carbonic  acid,  while  vegetation  consumes  carbonic 
acid,  and  generates  oxygen  ;  thus,  the  equilibrium  of 
the  air  is  preserved  in  reference  to  these  two  gases. 

Nitrogen  (Symbol  ]S  ;  combining  weight  14). 

This    gas,    as    before     stated,    constitutes    about 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  203 

seventy-nine  per  cent.,  or  four-fifths  of  the  atmos- 
phere which  surrounds  us.  Thus,  the  air  is 
twenty-one  per  cont.  oxygen  and  seventy-nine  per 
cent,  nitrogen.  It  being  one  of  the  constituents  of 
niter,  or  saltpeter,  it  is  properly  called  nitrogen. 
When  combined  with  oxygen,  in  the  proportion  of 
one  combination  weight  of  nitrogen  to  five  combi- 
nation weights  of  oxygen,  thus :  N,  14xO,  40.  form 
nitric  acid.  Nitrogen  exists  in  all  animal  substances, 
and  in  all  plants,  especially  such  as  putrify  with  an 
animal  odor,  as,  cabbages  and  mushrooms.  Nitric 
acid,  or  aqua-fortis,  combines  with  a  great  number  of 
bases,  giving  us  an  important  class  of  salts,  called 
nitrates. 

When  the  ashes  of  plants  are  examined,  we  find 
carbonates  of  bases  that  did  not  exist  in  the  soil  as 
such.  A  large  proportion  of  carbonate  of  lime  and 
potash  is  found  in  ashes ;  the  origin  of  these  is  to  be 
sought  in  the  vegetable  acids  of  plants,  which,  by 
heat,  produce  carbonic  acid.  This  is  the  effect  of 
heat  upon  all  salts  formed  of  vegetable  acids,  such  as 
tartaric,  malic,  citric,  oxalic,  and  vinegar  or  acetic  acids. 
Each  plant  forms  acids  in  definite  quantity,  propor- 
tionate to  its  size,  age,  and  parts  of  the  plant ;  thus  is  it 
beautifully  ordered  by  nature,  the  acids  being 
constant,  the  bases  to  saturate  them  will  be  equally 
constant. 

It  is  an  established  fact,  that  plants  growing  in  a 
soil  containing  a  due  mixture  of  earthy  ingredients, 
always  select  a  due  proportion  of  each,  according  to 
their  functions,  but  if  in  such  a  soil  an  excess  of 
either  of  the  alkalies,  such  as  lime,  potash,  soda,  or 
magnesia,  be  present,  then  an  excess  of  either  of 


204  WALL'S   MANUAL 

these  base3  may  be  taken  up  by  the  plant  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  usual  proportion  of  the  other ; 
hence,  one  base  may  be  substituted  for  another  in 
equivalent  proportion,  but  through  certain  elements, 
may  supply  the  place  of  others,  yet  no  one  element 
can  supply  the  place  of  all  the  others.-  Nor  can  the 
possible  mixture  of  mere  silicates  and  salts  alone  give 
fertility  to  a  barren  soil.  Fertility  depends,  in  a 
great  measure,  upon  the  presence  of  vegetable 
matter  in  the  soil.  This  vegetable,  or  organic 
matter,  is  constantly  undergoing  changes,  and  this 
chemically  induced  change  exerts  a  powerful  influence 
upon  fertility. 

In  the  products  of  the  decomposition  of  organic, 
or  vegetable  matter,  a  variety  of  substances  is 
formed,  differing  according  to  circumstances,  the 
time  and  progress  of  decay.  In  this  decomposition 
of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil,  the  nitrogen  it  may 
have  contained  combines  with  hydrogen,  a  highly 
important  fact  to  be  remembered.  This  union  of  nitrogen 
and  hydrogen  produces  ammonia.  The  nitrogen  of 
the  putrifying  body  is  thus  converted  into  ammonia, 
and  there  remains  the  several  forms  of  "  humus,"  or 
vegetable  mold. 

The  elements  which  do  not  usually  enter  into 
the  constitution  of  animal  or  vegetable  matter, 
mostly  from  comparatively  simple  compounds; 
while  the  four  "organic"  elements — ^carbon,  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  nitrogen — though  few  in  number,  form 
an  immense  number  of  compounds  of  great  com- 
plexity, Hence,  the  moment  life  departs,  the 
animal  or  plant  speedily  undergo  new  changes ;  its 
elements  which  life  had  organised,  obey  now  not  the 


OF    AGRICULTURE.  205 

laws  of  life,  but  the  laws  of  chemistry.  The  solids 
and  fluids  of  a  living  body  escape  part  in  air  and  gas, 
leaving  a  solid  mass  differing  equally  from  any  living 
organic  product,  and  form  inorganic  elements.  This 
complexity  and  susceptibility  to  decomposition  of 
inorganic  or  vegetable  bodies,  is  a  great  practical 
fact  in  agriculture.  It  is  this  that  forms  the  humus, 
or  vegetable  mold,  which  imparts  fertility  to  soil. 

The  great  practical  lesson  of  all  agricultural 
experience  teaches,  that  humus  or  mold,  is  essential 
to  the  healthy  growth  of  plants,  and  the  perfection 
of  seed,  that  without  humus,  crops  cannot  be  made. 
So  far  as  nourishment  is  derived  from  the  soil,  mold 
or  humus,  with  mineral  salts,  is  the  food  of  plants. 
It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  principle  in  agricultural 
chemistry,  that  humus,  in  some  form,  is  absolutely 
essential  to  agriculture. 

HUMUS     OR    VEGETABLE     MOLD. 

Humus,  or  mold,  is  the  product  of  decomposition 
of  bodies  once  endowed  with  life.  For  the  present 
purpose,  it  may  be  considered  as  the  result  of 
vegetable  decomposition.  Life,  and  the  manner  how 
plants  grow,  may  not  be  understood.  Growth  is  a 
process  of  life.  Decay  is  a  chemical  process  The 
laws  of  decomposition  are  not  only  understood,  but 
its  products  ma.y  be  limited,  controlled  and  hastened. 
Decay  is  fermentation,  and  this,  marked  by  its 
several  stages,  ends  in  putrefaction.  Putrefaction  is 
the  silent  onward  march  of  decay.  Its  end  is  humus 
or  mold,  the  great  promoter  of  fertility. 

The  union  of  hydrogen  and  nitrogen,  as  before 
said,  forms  ammonia.  This  ammonia,  which  always 


206  WALL'S   MANUAL 

exists  in  the  air,  by  the  action  of  the  oxygen  of  the 
air,  becomes  nitric  acid.  These  are  facts.  Ammonia 
in  the  air,  in  contact  with  porons  vegetable  matter  in 
a  decaying  condition,  becomes  aqua-fortis,  or  nitric 
acid.  Moist  decaying  substances  induce  the  nitrogen 
of  the  air,  inclosed  in  their  pores  to  become  first 
ammonia,  then  nitric  acid.  There  is  a  constant 
formation  of  nitric  acid  in  the  decomposition  of 
vegetable  matter.  What  becomes  of  the  nitric 
acid?  It  forms  nitrates,  a  class  of  salts  of  great 
value  in  the  soil.  All  these  changes  are  worthy 
of  study  j  the  ultimate  results  are  the  formation 
of  water  and  carbonic  acid ;  the  intermediate  pro- 
ducts are  ammoina  nitrates  and  soluble  salts  in  the 
soil,  essential  to  the  growth  of  plants. 

Hence  the  necessity  of  the  presence  of  humus  or 
mold  in  the  soil.  No  practical  farmer  ever  had  other 
opinion  than  this,  that  decaying  vegetable  matter  in 
soil  (matter  in  active  state  of  decay),  is  essential  to 
good  crops.  It  may  be  assumed  that  science  has  now 
shown  the  specific  grounds  for  this  universal  belief. 
It  is  perfectly  useless  for  a  farmer  to  spend  time 
and  money  in  putting  lime,  potash  and  other  salts  on 
his  land,  when  there  is  no  vegetable  matter  in  the 
soil.  This  fact  well  understood  will  save  thousands 
of  dollars  every  year. 


CHAPTEE   Y. 

THE  MUTUAL  ACTION    OF  THE  ORGANIC  AND   INORGANIC 
ELEMENTS   OF   THE   SOIL. 

We  will  now  take  up  and  study  the  mutual  action 
of  the  organic  and  inorganic  matter  in  thesoil.     How 


OF*1     AGRICULTURE.  207 

do  the  elements  of  the  soil  act  ?  The  answer  involves 
two  important  considerations.  First,  the  mutual 
chemical  action  of  the  elements  of  the  soil,  the  vege- 
table matter  and  salts  upon  each  other;  and,  second, 
this  action,  as  influenced  by  the  living,  growing 
plants. 

The  elements  of  the  soil  are  silicates,  salts,  and 
humus,  or  vegetable  mold.  The  silicates  are  such  as 
have  no  tendency  to  act  upon  each  other;  these  are 
gradually  decomposed  by  the  action  of  the  air.  The 
great  agent  in  this  action  is  carbonic  acid,  which 
gradually  combines  with  the  alkaline  base  of  the 
silicates,  and  the  potash  and  soda  in  them  are  con- 
verted into  soluble  salts,  while  the  sand  and  clay 
remain.  The  result  of  this  action  is  that  the  plants 
are  enabled  to  take  up  by  their  roots  the  soluble 
salts  which  have  been  set  free,  and  the  soil  becomes 
more  clayey. 

If  lime  be  applied  to  land,  either  air-slacked,  shell 
or  marl,  the  result  is,  slowly  but  surely  chemical 
action  takes  place,  resulting  in  rendering  soluble  an 
additional  supply  of  nutritive  ingredients,  such  as 
potash,  soda,  phosphoric  and  silicic  acids,  from  the 
previously  undecomposed  minerals  in  the  soil.  Thus, 
clay  soils  are  benefitted  by  liming,  and  also  sandy 
land,  if  not  limed  too  frequently  and  in  too  large 
doses.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  principle  that  car- 
bonic acid  and  ammonia  decompose  the  earthy, 
alkaline  and  metallic  silicates  in  the  soil.  The  result 
of  this  action  is  that  lime,  potash,  soda,  magnesia, 
and  metallic  oxydes  are  rendered  available  as  food  for 
plartts. 

Experiments   have    shown   conclusively   that   the 


208  WALL'S    MANUAL 

carbon  which  plants  contain,  and  which  forms  the 
bases,  as  it  were  of  their  vegetable  substance,  is 
derived  from  the  air  and  not  from  the  soil.  Plants 
can  grow  in  soils  absolutely  devoid  of  vegetable 
matter,  provided  the  soils  contains  mineral  ingredients 
required  by  the  plant,  in  a  soluble  state,  or  at  least 
in  a  condition  available  to  rootlets  of  plant. 

This  condition  we  do  not  often  find  fulfilled  in-  soils 
in  their  natural  state.  It  has  been  before  stated  that 
only  a  part  of  the  nutritive  ingredients  present  in 
the  soil  is  usually  available,  the  greater  part  being 
''locked  up"  in  the  undecomposed,  or  partially  de- 
composed minerals,  and  but  very  gradually  set  free 
by  the  action  of  the  atmosphere.  This  very  action 
is  due  chiefly  to  the  carbonic  acid  contained  in  the 
air,  and  will  be  the  more  powerful  and  rapid,  the  more 
carbonic  acid  is  present.  Now,  carbonic  acid  is  con- 
tinually formed  in  the  process  of  decay  of  vegetable 
matter ;  hence  the  importance  of  this  vegetable 
matter  in  the  soil.  It  is  true  that  in  some  measure 
it  acts  as  an  exhauster  of  the  mineral  ingredients  in 
the  soil,  and  in  that  respect  would  be  injurious  if  we 
do  not  supply  annually  ashes,  phosphate  of  lime, 
soda,  or  stable  and  barn  yard  manures  which  contain 
£hem  all. 

But  the  "  hnmus  "  or  vegetable  mold  has  other 
highly  important  offices  in  vegetable  economy.  One 
of  these — its  renjentiveness  of  moisture — it  soaks  up 
moisture  Jike  a  sponge ;  it  serves  as  a  correction  for 
light,  sandy  soils;  while  on  the  other  hand  it  renders 
clay  soils  less  compact  and  stiff.  Yet  there  is  another 
virtue  possessed  by  "humus"  more  important  than 
either  of  the  others — its  power  of  absorbing  ammonia 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  209 

from  the  air — thus  fixing  in  the  soil  this  important 
stimulant,  as  well  as  nutritive  ingredient  ready  to  be 
taken  up  by  the  rootlets  of  plants. 

When  we  consider  the  great  importance  of  the 
properties  of  "  humus  "  just  referred  to,  it  cannot  bo 
surprising  that  its  presence  should,  as  a  general  rule, 
exercise  an  influence  so  decidedly  favorable  on  the 
productiveness  of  soils,  yet  it  is  incontestably  true 
that  "humus"  alone,  without  mineral  ingredients, 
will  not  support  vegetable  growth.  It  is,  neverthe- 
less, true  that  a  perfectly  healthy  growth  of  cereals 
or  any  useful  cultivated  plant  is  rarely  attained  in 
soils  destitute  of  "humus/'  Hence  the  necessity  of 
composting  mineral  ingredients  with  vegetable  mold 
or  humus. — [Professor  E.  W.  Hilyard,  West  of  Missis- 
sippi. 

The  mere  presence  of  growing  plants  of  roots,  of 
seeds  where  life  is,  impresses  upon  both  the  vegetable 
and  mineral  elements  of  the  soil  power  to  enter  into 
new  combinations.  The  soil  then  is  not  external  to 
plants;  so  far  as  life  is  concerned  it  is  as  much 
internal  as  if  the  plant  had  a  mouth  and  stomach 
through  and  into  which  the  soil  might  be  fed.  Call 
this  power  life,  electricity,  galvanism  or  by  any 
other  name,  still  the  great  fact  remains,  that  the 
mere  presence  of  a  living,  growing  plant  in  the  soil 
effects  a  greater  amount  of  decomposition  than  all 
the  other  influences.  This  fact  is  of  the  highest 
importance  in  practical  agriculture. 

It  is  this  decomposing  action  of  the  living  plant 
on  the  mineral  elements  in  the  soil  which  affords  the 
only'reasonable  explanation  of  the  action  of  the  salts 
in  agriculture.  This  power  of  life  dissolves  the 


210  WALL'S    MANUAL 

elements  of  the  salts ;  they  enter  into  new  com- 
binations, the  base  and  the  acid  being  often  separated 
by  the  action  of  the  living  plant. 

We  will  illustrate  this  action :  Suppose  there  be 
applied  to  the  soil  a  salt  composed  of  muriatic  acid 
and  soda  (which  is  common  table  salt).  By  the 
action  of  the  living  plant  this  salt  is  partially  decom- 
posed, that  part  of  the  soda  furnishes  direct  food  for 
plants,  and  the  rest  with  the  muriatic  acid  acts  as 
solvents  in  the  soil,  and  in  that  way  nourishes  vege- 
tation. But  the  farmer  should  distinctly  understand 
that  large  crops,  resulting  from  the  use  of  salt,  is  at 
the  expense  of  his  soil.  Therefore  salt  should  only 
be  used  in  small  quantities,  and  always  composted 
with  other  manures. 

Again,  let  us  take  another  illustration  :  Suppose 
sulphate  of  lime  (land  plaster,  or  as  it  is  generally 
known,  plaster  of  Paris),  be  applied  to  the  soil,  the 
effect  of  only  one  bushel  per  acre  is  wonderful  to 
behold  on  clover  or  grass  lands,  which  shows  its  good 
effects  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach.  It  is  almost 
incredible  that  so  small  a  quantity  could  act  at  all, 
yet  how  beautifully  is  it  explained  by  the  principle 
that  plants  dissolve  this  salt,  the  lime  is  separated 
from  the  sulphuric  acid,  both  of  which  are  direct  food 
for  plants  ;  yet  its  supplying  these  ingredients  to  the 
soil  is  but  rarely  the  main  cause  of  its  good  effect 
upon  crops.  It  .has  a  great  attractive  power  for 
ammonia  and  carbonic  acid  contained  in  the  air,  both 
of  which  it  attracts  and  fixes  in  the  soil.  The  lime, 
carbonic  acid  and  ammonia  act  as  solvents  of  the 
silicates  in  the  soil,  and  the  potash,  soda,  etc.,  of  the 
silicates  is  liberated  to  become  food  for  plants. 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  211 

There  is  no  speculation,  and  we  may  say  no 
mystery,  as  to  the  manner  in  which  these  ingredients 
of  the  soil  act.  The  effect  produced  by  such  wonder- 
fully small  quantities  of  the  mineral  fertilizers  is  no 
longer  astonishing.  It  is  no  more  wonderful  than 
that  leaven  should  make  dough  rise,  it  is  even  less 
mysterious. 


CHAPTEE    VI. 

MINERAL     FERTILIZERS THEIR    ACTION    IN     THE      SOIL. 

Silex  or  sand,  lime,  potash,  soda,  magnesia,  iron, 
sulphate,  phosphorus,  Chilian  saltpetre  and  salt  are 
the  mineral  parts  of  plants.  It  is  mainly  with  these 
substances  we  have  to  deal  in  connection  with 
fertility  in  agriculture. 

"  SILEX  .' ' 

Silica  or  silex  is  a  very  abundant  natural  product. 
It  forms  a  large  part  of  all  granite  or  primitive  rocks, 
and  is  the  chief  ingredient  in  sand  stones  earthly 
formations,  rock  crystal  or  quartz.  Flint  and  sub- 
stances of  this  kind  are  composed  almost  entirely  of 
silex  or  sand.  Silex,  in  the  form  of  sand,  is  the 
principal  article  used  in  the  manufacture  of  glass. 
Oxygen  with  silicon,  forms  silicic  acid  (as  before 
explained).  This  acid  uniting  with  bases  forms 
silicates,  as  the  silicate  of  potash,  silicate  of  lime  and 
of  soda.  Silex  in  the  form  of  sand  is  the  principal 
part  of  all  soils. 


212  WALL'S    MANUAL 

LIME. 

The  purposes  served  by  lime  as  a  chemical  constit- 
uent of  the  soil,  are,  at  least,  of  four  distinct  kinds, 
viz  : 

1.  It  supplies  direct  food  for  plants  which  appears 
necessary  for  their  healthy  growth. 

2.  It  neutralizes  acid  substances,  which  are  naturally 
formed  in  the  soil,  decomposes  and  renders  harmless 
other  noxious  compounds,  wThich  arc  very  jo f ten  in 
reach  of  the  rootlets  of  plants. 

3.  It  changes  insoluble  vegetable  matter  into  soluble 
food  for  plants. 

4.  It  promotes  the  decomposition  of  existing  com- 
pounds in   the  soil,    so   as   to   prepare   them    more 
speedily  as  food  for  plants. 

Lime  is  not  merely  a  base,  but  a  very  strong  basa, 
and  can  therefore  withdraw  from  the  weaker  bases 
existing  in  the  soil  the  acids  with  which  they  are 
combined.  Caustic  or  quick  lime,  as  the  name  indi- 
cates, attacks  the  skin  of  the  hand,  and  'dissolves  it 
in  washing  in  the  same  way  as  potash  or  lye,  and  has 
a  similar  action  upon  other  animal  and  vegetable 
substances.  When  lime  is  mixed  with  the  soil,  it 
acts  in  this  decomposing  and  dissolving  way  upon 
leaves,  straw,  stalks  and  other  vegetable  matter  in 
the  soil  which  have  already  been  partially  converted 
into  mold  by  natural  decay. 

The  difficulty  of  vegetable  matter  in  light  soils, 
accounts  for  lime  not  acting  beneficially.  It  should 
be  used  very  sparingly  on  such  lands,  and  with  an 
interval  of  six  or  seven  years  between  the  limings. 
Lot  green  crops  of  peas  or  clover  be  plowed  under, 


OF    AGRICULTURE.  213 

on  such  soils,  and  then  limed.  The  farmer  will  find 
his  grain  crops  greatly  increased,  and  his  land  left  in 
better  heart. 

Quick- lime  should  never  be  used  with  "guano," 
stable  or  fermenting  manures;  it  has  the  effect  of 
setting  the  ammonia  free  in  these  manures.  After 
the  lime  has  been  sometime  on  the  surface  of  the 
soil,  it  can  exercise  no  injurious  effect  on  any  kind  of 
manure. 

The  most  valuable  kind  of  lime  for  agricultural 
purposes,  is  that  obtained  from  burning  oyster  shells, 
and  allowing  it  to  remain  exposed  to  the  air  a  few 
hours  to  slack.  The  amount  used  to  the  acre,  depends 
upon  the  nature  of  the  soil,  from  thirty  to  one  hun- 
dred bushels;  thirty  bushels  on  the  light,  and  one 
hundred  on  the  clay  lands. 

GYPSUM  —  SULPHATE    OF   LIME,    OR   PLASTER. 

Gypsum,  or  the  sulphate  of  lime,  is  a  well  known 
white,  crystalline  compound,  found  in  large  deposits, 
in  various  parts  of  the  world.  The  native  plaster, 
or  gypsum,  of  commerce,  consists  of: 

Water • 21  per  cent. 

Lime 33  " 

Sulphuric  acid «• 46  " 

100  parts. 

A  ton  of  pure  plaster  will  yield  when  ground,  about 
twenty-five  bushels.  Dr.  Benj.  Franklin,  when  he 
wished  to  introduce  this  fertilizer  into  America  from 
France,  in  order  to  convince  his  countrymen  of  its 
efficacy,  sowed  in  large  letters  upon  a  clover  lot,  at 
Washington  city,  in  powdered  plaster,  this  phrase: 
"  This  land  has  been  Plastered.1'  The  effect  of  this 
application  of  plaster  was  distinctly  visible  for  several 
years. 


214  WALL'S  MANUAL 

The  soils  upon  which  plaster  has  the  most  marked 
effect,  are  those  of  a  light,  dry  and  sandy  nature.  It 
is  used  principally  on  grass  and  clover  crops,  with 
great  success,  one  bushel  of  plaster  often  doubling 
the  crop.  But  in  order  that  such  a  simple  substance 
as  gypsum,  should  be  of  benefit,  the  soil  must  possess 
all  the  other  ingredients  necessary  for  a  crop.  Take 
clover,  for  an  illustration.  This  plant  requires  fourteen 
substances  to  perfect  its  growth,  if  only  one  of  these 
substances  be  missing,  as  potash,  for  instance,  the 
other  ingredients  would  be  of  little,  or  no  avail. 

On  land  exhausted  by  over- cropping,  which  con- 
tains very  little  vegetable  matter,  plaster  will  be  of 
no  service,  but  will  do  good  after  an  application  of 
barn-yard  manure,  or  the  plowing  under  of  a  green 
crop.  Plaster  may  be  applied  to  grass  lands  by 
sowing  it  broad- cast,  at  the  rate  of  one  to  two  bushels 
per  acre ;  it  may  be  applied  in  the  hill  to  beans,  peas, 
or  corn,  at  the  time  of  planting,  or  dropped  upon 
them  just  after  they  are  up.  The  best  time  for 
applying  plaster,  is  in  the  morning  or  evening,  when 
the  dew  is  upon  the  plant,  or  on  a  damp,  cloudy  day. 

When  sown  with  grain,  the  ordinary  dose  is  equal 
in  bulk,  to  that  of  the  grain,  say  two  hundred  pounds 
to  the  acre,  but  to  crops  of  potatoes  and  corn,  as 
much  as  three  or  four  bushels  have  been  applied, 
Used  in  a  compost  with  dung,  or  combined  with 
other  manures,  such  as  guano,  it  has  a  marked  effect 
upon  turnips.  If  plaster  is  sprinkled  over  barn- 
yard or  stable  manure,  it  hastens  decomposition,  and 
at  the  same  time  fixes  the  ammonia,  so  that  it  cannot 
escape  into  the  air  and  be  lost. 


OF    AGRICULTURE.  215 

MARL. 

By  the  term,  "marl,"  is  generally  understood  an 
earthly  mixture,  containing  not  less  than  one-fifth  of 
its  weight  of  lime,  or  twenty  per  cent,  of  the  carbonate 
of  lime. 

"  Clay  Marl." — This  has  the  appearance  of  a  more 
or  less  tenacious  clay.  When  long  exposed  to  the 
air,  or  put  in  water,  crumbles  to  powder.  It  has- 
much  the  same  qualities  of  lime,  and  acts  in  a  similar 
manner  in  soils,  but  with  less  energy.  Clay  marl 
usually  contains  sixty- eight  to  eighty  per  cent,  of 
clay,  and  from  twenty  to  thirty- two  per  cent,  of 
lime. 

"Stone  Marl.^ — Is  often  richer  in  lime  than  the 
clay.  Clay  marls  are  sooner  dissolved  than  the  stone, 
and  commonly 'have  stronger  power  of  neutralizing 
acids,  and  producing  salts.  Jlay  or  stone  marls  are 
well  suited  to  light,  sandy  soils,  which  they  improve 
and  render  more  solid.  On  the  contrary,  sandy 
marls  are  good  for  stiff,  clay  soils,  causing  them  to 
be  easily  worked, 

"Shell  Marl." — This  marl  is  different  in  nature 
from  the  two  just  described,  being:  highly  fertilizing: 
upon  soils  of  every  description.  It  does  not  disin- 
tegrate in  water  like  them,  but  sucks  it  up,  and 
sometimes  swells  like  a  sponge,  as  they  do.  It 
contains  from  thirty-two  to  forty-six  per  cent,  of 
lime,  and  dissolves  quickly  when  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere.  Most  of  the  marls  above  described,  are 
to  be  found  in  great  abundance  in  the  Southern 
States.  From  five  to  six  hundred  bushels  to  the 
acre  should  be  applied,  or  about  twenty  wagon  loads. 


216  WALL'S    MANUAL 

Many  marls  contain  green  sand-grains,  a  mineral 
containing  a  large  quantity  of  potash  and  soluble 
sand,  and  therefore  especially  adapted  to  the  cereals 
and  grasses, 

POTASH, 

Potash  of  commerce,  is  obtained  from  the  lye  of 
wood  ashes,  boiled  down  in  pots  ;  hence,  the  name  of 
potash.  It  is  used  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  soap 
and  glass.  Ashes  of  wood  are  used  largely  in  agri- 
culture ;  one  bushel  of  good  wood  ashes,  contains 
about  four  and  a  half  pounds  of  pure  potash. 

AXALY8IS  OP  ASHES  (100  POUNDS)  OP   BE»CH   AND   PINE   WOOD, 

(Bottinger,)  (Malaguti.) 

Beech,  Pine. 

Potash 11.80  16.24 

Soda 2.04  5.26 

Magnesia 8.42  7.12 

Chloride  of   soda 0,16  1,65 

Sulphuric  acid 1.01  10.29 

Carbonate  of  lime 47.21  44.74 

Phosphoric  acid 2,29  6.11 

Silica 1.09  6.81 

Oxyde  of  iron 0.60  1.60 

100,00  100.00 

It  will  be  perceived  from  the  above  analysis,  that 
woods  ashes  contain  an  average  of  about  twelve  per 
cent,  of  potash,  three  and  a  half  per  cent,  of  soda,  five 
and  a  half  per  cent,  of  sulphuric  acid,  all  soluble  in 
water.  The  insoluble  parts  are  bases,  and  when  they 
come  in  contact  with  the  mold  and  acids  in  the  soil, 
become  soluble,  causing  the  insoluble  humus  or  mold 
to  become  soluble,  and,  therefore,  food  for  plants. 
Hence,  the  value  of  wood  ashes  as  a  fertilizer. 

SODA. 

Soda  is  readily  distinguished  from  the  other 
alkalies  by  the  following  characteristic* :  "With 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  217 

muriatic  acid  it  forms  common  table  salt,  with  the 
taste  of  which  every  one  is  familiar ;  with  sulphuric 
acid  it  forms  Gluaber's  salts,  or  sulphate  of  soda. 
All  the  salts  of  soda  are  soluble  in  water.  When 
applied  to  the  soil  it  immediately  combines  with -the 
acids,  and  forms  soluble  salts, 

MAGNESIA, 

Magnesia  is  a  common  substance,  existing  in  most 
soils.  It  is  a  white,  light,  and  odorless  powder,  and 
slightly  soluble  in  water.  It  forms  soluble  salts  with 
nitric,  muriatic,  or  sulphuric  acids.  According  to 
11  Bergmann,"  magnesia  forms  an  important  ingredient 
of  some  of  the  most  important  soils,  and  of  the  mud 
of  the  river  Nile,  in  Egypt,  Jlagnesia  is  present  in 
almost  all  soils,  in  sufficient  quantities  for  plants,  and 
is  found  in  the  seeds  of  most  plants.  It  can  be  pro- 
cured in  large  quantities  from  magnesian  lime -stone, 
which  abounds  in  various  sections  of  the  world. 

IRON. 

Iron  is  sometimes  found  in  its  natural  state,  but 
very  seldom.  The  ores  of  this  metal  are  very 
numerous,  and  some  of  them  very  beautiful  and 
interesting.  They  are  chiefly  sulphurets  and  oxydes, 
but  the  oxydes  are  the  only  ores  from  which  the 
metal  is  obtained.  Iron  combines  with  carbon,  sul- 
phur, iodine,  phosphorus,  and  the  different  acids.  It 
is  present  in  most  all  the  soils,  and  is  a  constituent  of 
the  blood  of  all  animals,  including  man. 

SULPHUR. 

Sulphur  is  a  well  known  brittle  solid,  of  a  greenish- 
yellow  color.      It  is  chiefly  interesting  in  agriculture 
10 


218  WALL'S    MANUAL 

from  the  fact  that  sulphuric  acid  is  formed  from 
it,  thus :  1  comb.  wt.  sulphur  =  16x3  comb.  wts. 
oxygen  24  =  40  sulphuric  acid.  Sulphuric  acid 
unites  with  lime,  forming  the  sulphate  of  lime  or 
plaster,  it  also  unites  with  other  bases,  forming  sul- 
phates, and  it  is  used  to  dissolve  bones,  forming  the 
"superphosphate  of  lime" 

"PHOSPHORUS." 

Of  all  the  substances  which  the  farmer  has  to  take 
under  consideration,  we  think  phosphorus  the  most 
important.  It  is  found  in  all  animals  and  vegetables  ; 
without  it,  neither  the  one  nor  the  other  could  live. 
It  is  also  diffused  widely,  and  is  discovered  in  combi- 
nation with  oxygen,  in  all  rocks,  in  all  soils,  in  all 
plants,  and  in  the  flesh  and  bones  of  fish,  reptiles, 
insects,  animals,  and  in  their  secretions.  It  is  found 
in  nature,  combined  with  many  other  substances, 
forming  phosphates ;  thus,  we  have  the  phosphate  of 
lime,  of  magnesia,  of  iron,  etc.  But  it  is  in  the 
phosphates  and  phosphoric  acid,  that  the  farmer  is 
most  interested. 

The  use  of  "bones"  in  agriculture,  has  been  long 
and  widely  adopted  in  England,  and  in  other  countries 
in  Europe,  and  for  some  years  they  have  been 
extensively  used  in  the  United  States.  From  300,000 
to  400,000  tons  of  bones  are  imported  into  Great 
Britain,  and  used  by  the  English  farmers  every  year. 
The  chief  source  from  which  this  vast  quantity  of 
bones  is  obtained,  is  from  the  plains  of  South  America, 
where  great  herds  of  wild  cattle  are  annually 
slaughtered  for  their  hides,  tallow  and  bones. 

"Bones"  are  the  most  available  source  from  which 


OP    AGRICULTURE.  219 

the  phosphate  of  lime  is  obtained.  Guano  owes  a 
large  proportion  of  its  value  to  the  phosphate  of 
lime  it  contains.  "  Bones"  enter  into  the  composition  of 
nearly  all  the  artificial  manure- powders  of  commerce, 
Bones,  like  guano,  force  and  quicken  vegetation, 
develop  and  form  seed. 

RAW  BONES,  SUCH  A8  HAVI  NOT  BEEN  BOILED   OR  CALCINED.      ANALYSIS  OF  100  POUNDg 
OF   BONES,  BY  HENITZ. 

Fat.  gelatine  and  water i 23.42 

Phosphate  of  lime U...IH 63.62 

Carbonate  of  lime ,,,.,<„) ,„;,, ,, 7;89 

Magnesia  (J3hdsphate).......u:;....i 2.28 

Soda 2.79 

100 

No  practical  use  can  be  made  of  bones,  until 
crushed  or  ground — -the  finer  ground  the  better, 
When  finely  ground,  if  moistened,  the  meal  soon 
heats,  fermentation  sets  in,  and  the  gelatine  evolves 
from  four  to  six  per  cent,  of  its  weight  as  pure 
ammonia,  To  prevent  the  escape  of  the  ammonia 
into  the  air,  sprinkle  the  pile  with  a  few  pounds  of 
plaster,  or  with  one-half  pint  of  oil  of  vitrol  (sul- 
phuric acid),  stirred  into  two  gallons  of  water,  for 
every  one  hundred  pounds  of  bone  meal. 

"Boiled  bones,"  such  as  have  been  boiled  at  soap 
factories,  for  the  purpose  of  extracting  the  fat  and 
gelatine,  or  have  been  boiled,  so  that  they  can  be 
crushed  or  ground  more  readily ; 

ANALYSIS  OP  BOILED  BONES,  (100  PARTS), 

Water..... , 10.. 

Animal  matter u 20.2 

Phosphate  of  lime  and  magnesia^.... ,  65.5 

Carbonate  of  lime  and  magnesia;. >,..« ............ ^..«. ..........    8.3 

100  parts* 

Practical  experience  has  demonstrated  that  bone 
meal  from  boiled  bones5  is  its  most  valuable  form  for 


220  WALL'S   MANUAL 

agricultural  purposes,  chiefly  on  account  of  the  very 
fine  state  of  division,  The  bone  meal  ferments, 
some  ammonia  is  given  off,  the  phosphate  of  lime 
combines  with  the  animal  matter,  and  is  easily  dis- 
solved by  rain  water, 

CALCINED  BONES  OR  BURNED  BONES,  SUGAR- 
MOUSE  REFUSE,  OR  BONE-BLACK, 

Bones  are  easily  reduced  to  the  state  of  ashes,  by 
piling  them  up  with  light- Wood  or  faggots  and  firing 
the  heap.  The  bones  continue  burning  until  reduced 
to  whiteness,  become  as  brittle  as  pipe  stems,  and  are 
very  easy  to  grind,  By  this  mode,  all  the  animal 
matter  is  burned  out.  In  the  state  of  ash,  phos- 
phate of  lime  is  less  soluble  than  bone  meal ;  hence, 
does  not  act  as  quickly,  nor  mature  a  crop  as  rapidly 
as  the  latter.  It  has  been  found  by  treating  bone  ash, 
as  also  bone  meal,  with  certain  acids,  the  phosphate 
of  lime  is  brought  into  a  highly  soluble  state,  The 
cheapest  acid,  and  the  one  commonly  used  for  this 
purpose,  is  sulphuric  acid  or  oil  of  vitriol;  which 
produces  by  its  action  on  bone,  both  plaster  and  a 
soluble  phosphate  of  lime,  called  super- phosphate  of 
lime.  In  this  state,  bone  acts  quicker  and  goes 
farther  than  in  any  other  form, 

There  are  various  methods  of  dissolving  bones 
with  oil  of  vitriol  (sulphuric  acid),  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  this  acid  is  highly  corrosive,  and 
requires  great  care  in  handling  it,  or  the  hand  may 
be  burned,  an  eye  lost  or  clothes  destroyed, 

First  method.  Take  one  hundred  pounds  of 
crushed  bones — the  smaller  the  better — -place  them  in 
a  hogshead,  pour  upon  them  five  or  six  gallons  of 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  221 

water,  so  as  to  thoroughly  wet  them.  Then  pour  in 
carefully,  thirty-three  pounds  of  acid,  stir  the  mess 
with  a  wooden  shovel  until  the  acid  comes  in  contact 
with  all  the  bones  ;  cover  up  and  let  it  stand  twenty- 
four  hours.  Then  give  the  second  dose  of  thirty- three 
pounds  of  acid,  stirring  the  mess  well ;  cover  up  the 
hogshead  and  let  it  stand  for  ten  or  twelve  days, 
when  you  will  find  the  bones  dissolved. 

Second  method — without  acid.  Take  broken  bones 
— the  smaller  the  better — place  them  in  a  hogshead 
or  barrel  in  a  layer  of  six  inches,  then  a  layer  of 
hard- wood  ashes,  mixed  with  one- tenth  of  its  bulk  of 
slacked  lime,  so  as  to  fill  the  spaces  between  the 
bones,  and  cover  them;  proceed  in  the  same  way, 
until  the  barrel  is  nearly  full.  Then  pour  in  boiling- 
hot  water  enough  to  wet  the  whole  mess,  cover  up 
and  let  it  stand  for  from  thirty  to  forty  days,  taking 
care  that  the  lye  does  not  leak  out,  but  remains 
standing  over  the  ashes.  This  preparation  will  not 
act  as  quickly  on  vegetation  as  that  prepared  with 
the  acid,  but  will  answer  a  very  good  purpose. 

Third  method.  If  the  bones  be  ground  fine,  by 
using  a  larger  proportion  of  acid,  say  eighty- six  and 
one- third  pounds  to  the  one  hundred  pounds  of  bones, 
a  superphosphate  will  be  formed,  which  will  act  very 
quickly,  and  have  almost  the  same  effect  as  the  best 
Peruvian  guano. 

Fourth  method.  If  the  bones  be  ground  to  a  fine 
meal,  by  using  a  smaller  portion  of  acid,  say  twenty  - 
eight  pounds  to  one  hundred  pounds  of  meal,  a 
superphosphate  will  bo  formed,  which  will  act  more 
slowly,  but  last  longer  than  the  above, 


222  WALL'S    MANUAL 

By  pursuing  either  of  the  above  methods, 
phosphate,  or  the  superphosphate  of  lime,  will  be 
produced,  which  will  act  very  beneficially  in  forcing 
vegetation  with  all  crops,  and  especially  in  forming 
the  seed.  A  special  mixture  of  guano  a.nd  super- 
phosphate of  lime  has  been  described  before  for 
crops  of  corn,  cotton,  wheat,  etc. 

CHILIAN     SALTPETRE     AND     COMMON     SALT, 

Among  the  stimulants  wrhich  may  sometimes  be 
used  to  advantage,  both  by  themselves  and  in 
addition  to  stable  manure  or  to  the  compost  pile,  we 
may  mention  common  salt  and  Chilian  saltpetre,  or 
nitrate  of  soda,  They  act  as  solvents  and  decompos- 
ing agents,  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  ammoniacal 
salts,  and  the  farmer  ought  to  understand  distinctly, 
that  large  crops,  resulting  from  their  use,  have  been 
produced  entirely  at  the  expense  of  his  soil,  Both 
salts,  being  but  slightly  absorbed  by  the  soil,  are 
soon  removed  from  it,  to  a  great  extent,  by  drain 
water. 

COLUMBIAN     GUANO. 

There  is  imported  from  South  America,  under  the 
appellation  of  "  Columbian  Guano,"  a  substance  very 
different  from  the  Peruvian  article,  which  consists 
chiefly  of  phosphate  and  carbonate  of  lime,  but  it 
contains  no  ammonia,  or  only  traces  of  it.  It  may 
be  used  in  the  same  way  as  ground  bones,  or  super= 
phosphate  of  lime  ;  it  is  not,  however,  as  energetic  in 
action  as  the  latter,  being  much  less  soluble. 

It  has  been  attempted,  and  apparently  with 
considerable  success,  to  remedy  the  slowness  of 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  223 

action  by  intermixture  of  the  finely  ground 
mineral  with  stimulants,  such  as  Peruvian  guano, 
or  ammonical  salts. 


CHAPTEE    VII. 

AN    ADDITIONAL   DESCRIPTION    OF    MINERALS. 

To  have  a  clearer  understanding  of  the  facts, 
illustrations  and  experiments  presented  in  this  work, 
the  author  thinks  it  necessary  to  give  a  more 
extended  description  of  the  minerals  and  acids. 

QUART  z. 

Quartz  is  silica  crystalized.  When  broken  down 
into  fine  grains,  it  forms  sand,  and  this  consolidated 
or  concentrated  with  silex,  lime  or  oxydes  of  iron, 
constitutes  sand  stones.  When  silica  is  fused  with 
bases  it  unites  with  them,  playing  the  part  of  an 
acid,  and  forming  salts — the  silicates. 

Talc  and  Serpentine. — Talc  is  the  silicate  of  mag- 
nesia. French  chalk  and  soapstone  are  varieties  of 
talc,  and  are  so  soft  that  they  may  be  worked  with 
the  same  tools  as  wood.  Soapstone  does  not  fracture 
in  the  fire,  and  is  used  for  lining  fire  places  and 
grates.  It  has  a  soapy,  greasy  feel,  hence  its  name. 

Augite. — Augite  is  a  double  silicate  of  magnesia 
and  iron,  its  prevailing  color  is  some  shade  of  green. 
It*forms  extensive  barren  ridges  of  magnesian  rock. 

Horneblende. — This  mineral  is  the  silicate  of  mag- 
nesia, iron  and  lime.  It  is  of  a  dark  color,  and  exists 


224  WALL'S    MANUAL 

f>yj*r^ 

abundantly  in  many  rocks  which  yield  lime  to  soils 
when  decomposed.  It  is  an  element  of  the  slate  and 
trap  rocks. 

Feldspar. — Feldspar  contains  a  large  proportion  of 
clay.  It  is  the  chief  ingredient  of  porphysy,  the 
hardest  and  most  enduring  of  all  rocks.  It  is  a 
white  or  flesh-colored  mineral,  and  by  decomposition 
furnishes  potash  and  clay  to  soils ;  also,  the  fine 
clays  for  porcclian  ware. 

Mica. — Mica  occurs  in  semi-transparent  plates, 
which  may  be  split  into  elastic  leaves  of  almost  any 
degree  of  thinness.  It  withstands  fire,  and  is  used 
as  a  substitute  for  glass  in  the  doors  of  stoves.  It  is 
frequently  called  isinglass.  Quartz,  feldspar  and 
mica  compose  granite,  which  underlays  all  other  rock 
formations.  Much  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  Andes 
Alps,  Pyrenese  and  all  the  highest  mountains  in  the 
world  are  granite.  Upon  many  of  the  "silicates"  the 
car  exerts  a  destructive  agency.  The  carbonic  acid 
of  the  air  slowly  unites  with  their  bases,  thus  break- 
ing the  bond  which  united  their  elements,  and 
combining  with  them.  By  absorbing  into  their 
pores  moistures  which  expands  when  freezing,  they 
are  mechanically  crumbled  down.  These  -joint  forces 
are  constantly  active  in  disintegrating  and  wearing 
down  rocks  and  stones,  and  reducing  them  to  the 
condition  of  s&iL 

ARTIFICIAL   SILICATES. 

Although  not  immediately  connected  with  agricul- 
ture, yet  it  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  mention 
some  of  the  artificial  silicates  : 

Glass. — The  several  kinds  of  glass  are  composed  of 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  225 

silica  or  sand,  with  various  bases.  Silicate  of  potash 
and  soda  forms  a  colorless  glass  which  is  soluble  in 
water.  This  soluble  glass  is  applied  to  wood  and 
cloth,  etc.,  to  render  them  incombustible.  Silicates 
of  soda  and  lime  forms  window  glass,  the  soda  gives 
it  a  slight  greenish  tinge.  The  lime  hardens  the 
glass  and  adds  to  its  lustre. 

Silicates  of  potash  and  lime  forms  plate  glass  and 
crown  glass  (the  finest  window  glass), 

Silicates  of  potash  and  lead'  yield  flint  glass  and 
crystal  glass.  The  oxyde  of  lead  gives  it  great  trans- 
parency, brilliancy  and  refractive  power;  it  is  hence 
used  for  chandiliers  and  optical  lenses. 

Silicates  of  alumina,  of  oxyde  of  iron,  and  potash 
or  soda  produce  green  bottle  glass,  the  color  being 
due  to  the  impurities  of  the  materials. 

Earthenware. — Silicate  of  alumina  or  clay  is  the 
basis  of  all  the  varieties  of  pottery.  Its  adaptation 
for  this  puroose  depends  upon  its  plasticity  when 
mixed  with  water,  the  readiness  with  which  it  may 
be  molded  and  shaped,  and  on  its  capability  of 
being  hardened  when  exposed  to  a  high  heat  in 
furnaces  or  kilns. 

ACIDS. 

Some  more  extended  explanation  of  the  acids  may 
be  necessary,  we  therefore  lay  them  before  the 
reader : 

Carbonic  Acid. — This  acid  being  one  of  the  most 
important,  we  will  describe  it  first.  Carbon  unites 
with  oxygen  in  the  proportion  of  one  combining 
weight  to  two,  forming  carbonic  acid  (c.  o.  2).  Car- 
bonic acid  is  a  colorless  gas,  with  a  slightly  sour 
10* 


22G  WALL'S    MANUAL 

taste,  and  is  about  one  and  a  half  times  heavier  than 
air.  It  exists  abundantly  in  the  mineral  crust  of  the 
earth,  hence  called  fixed  air ;  and  is  found  also  in  the 
atmosphere  in  a  pure  state.  It  is  found  in  lime 
stone  to  the  extent  of  forty-four  per  cent,  of  its 
weight,  and  is  best  obtained  by  the  action  of  muriatic 
acid  upon  powdered  marble. 

Any  strong  acid  will  do.  A  cubic  inch  of  marble 
will  yield  four  gallons  of  gas. 

Properties  of  Carbonic  Acid — It  Extinguishes  Fire. — 
A  candle  dipped  into  it  goes  out  at  once,  and  if 
poured  upon  a  flame  it  quenches  it  as  quickly  as 
water.  It  is  the  foul  air  in  wells;  hence  no  one 
should  venture  into  a  well  before  testing  whether 
carbonic  acid  gas  is  present  or  not.  A  candle  let 
down  in  the  well  is  a  good  test :  if  extinguished  the 
gas  is  present,  if  it  burns  as  usual  there  is  no  danger. 

Sources  of  Carbonic  Acid. — Carbonic  acid  is  pro- 
duced very  abundantly  in  nature.  The  burning  of 
wood  (which  always  contains  carbon)  in  the  open  air 
yields  it  in  vast  quantities.  The  combustion  of  one 
bushel  of  charcoal  will  produce  two  thousand  five 
hundred  gallons  of  this  gas.  It  is  formed  within  the 
bodies  of  all  animals,  by  the  union  of  the  oxygen  of 
the  atmosphere  with  the  carbon  contained  in  the 
system ;  it  escapes  through  the  lungs,  by  respiration, 
into  the  -air.  Each  adult  man  exhales  about  one 
hundred  and  forty  gallons  per  day. — [Davy. 

The  test  of  carbonic  acid  is  clear  lime  water, 
which  it  turns  milky,  by  forming  insoluble  carbonate 
pf  lime.  To  prove  that  it  is  the  product  of  both  com- 
bustion and  respiration,  invert  an  empty  jar  over  a 


OF    AGRICULTURE,  227 

burning  candle  for  a  short  time ;  then  agitate  in  the 
jar  a  little  lime  water.  It  will  become  turbid  at  once. 
With  a  glass  tube,  or  a  tobacco-pipe,  breathe  through 
a  portion  of  clear  lime-water,  and  the  same  effect 
will  be  produced. 

Carbonic  acid  exists  in  all  natural  waters,  and 
form  many  mineral  springs,  as  those  at  Saratoga ; 
it  constantly  escapes,  causing  the  water  to  sparkle, 
and  giving  it  a  pungent,  lively  taste.  Soda-water  is 
such  as  has  been  charged  artificially  with  carbonic  acid. 

Its  Physiological  Effects. — Carbonic  acid  gas,  when 
respired,  destroys  animal  life.  This  it  does  in  two 
ways:  \vhen  breathed  pure  it  produces  spasms  of  the 
glotis,  closes  the  air  passages,  and  thus  kills  suddenly 
by  suffocation.  When  diluted  with  ev"en  ten  times  its 
bulk  of  air,  and  taken  into  the  system,  it  acts  as  a 
narcotic  poison,  gradually  producing  stupor,  insensi- 
bility and  death. 

Persons  sleeping  in  close  apartments  are  sometimes 
suffocated  by  the  fumes  ef  burning  charcoal — carbonic 
oxyde — as  already  stated  above,  but  so  many  persons 
are  killed  by  going  into  w^ells  that  I  state  it  again.  It 
often  accumulates  at  the  bottom  of  wells  and  in 
cellars,  stifling  those  who  may  unwarily  descend.  To 
test  its  presence  in  such  cases,  lower  a  lighted  candle 
into  the  suspected  places.  If  it  is  not  extinguished, 
the  air  may  be  breathed  for  a  short  time  ;  if  the  light 
goes  out,  it  will  be  necessary  before  descending,  to 
throw  down  some  dry,  slacked  lime  or  raise  and 
depress  an  umbrella  in  it  repeatedly,  in  order  to 
mingle  it  with  the  air. 

4To  resuscitate  those  who  have  been  exposed  to  the 
poisonous  action  of  carbonic  acid,  dash   cold  water 


228  WALL'S    MANUAL 

upon  them  freely,   rub  the  extremities,  and,  if  the 
body  is  cold,  administer  a  warm  bath. 

Carbonic  acid  is  used  to  suffocate  insects,  as  butter- 
flies, when  it  is  desired  to  preserve  the  colors  perfect. 
The  Lake  of  Averno,  which  was  asserted  by  the 
ancients  to  have  been  the  entrance  to  the  infernal 
regions,  evolves  so  large  a  quantity  of  carbonic  acid 
gas,  that  birds  flying  over  it  drop  from  suffocation. 
Carbonic  acid  unites  with  bases  forming  a  class  of 
salts — the  carbonates. 

Sulphuric  Acid. — This  powerful  acid  is  of  the 
greatest  interest  to  the  chemist,  agriculturist  and 
manufacturer.  It  was  formerly  obtained  from  "  green 
vitriol,"  and  hence  called  " oil  of  vitriol"  It  is  now 
prepared  upon  a  large  scale,  by  heating  sulphur  and 
nitre  in  furnaces  and  conducting  the  sulphurous  and 
nitrous  acid  fumes  which"  are  thus  formed,  into  vast 
leaden  chambers,  along  with  steam  and  atmospheric 
air,  the  floor  of  the  chamber  being  covered  with 
water.  The  water  at  the  bottom  of  the  chamber, 
which  soon  becomes  very  acid,  is  drawrn  off  and 
boiled  down  in  platinum  stills  to  a  sufficient  degree  of 
concentration. 

When  the  acid  is  procured  from  the  distillation  of 
green  vitriol,  it  comes  off  in  a  dry  state,  and  attracts 
moisture  so  rapidly  as  to  cause  fuming ;  it  is  hence 
called  the  fuming  oil  of  vitriol  or  "  Nordhousen  acid," 
because  it  was  largely  manufactured  in  a  city  of  that 
name  in  Saxony.  Common  sulphuric  acid  or  oil  of 
vitriol,  contains  a  larger  proportion  of  water. 

Properties. — Sulphuric  acid  has  a  thick,  oily  appear- 
ance, with  a  greasy  or  soapy  face;  but  it  speedily 
corrodes  the  skin,  and  causes  an  intense  burning 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  229 

sensation.  It  has  a  powerful  affinity  for  water  ;  when 
a  splinter  of  wood  is  dropped  into  it  for  a  short  time 
it  "chars"  or  turns  black,  the  acid  decomposing  it 
into  water  and  carbon.  In  like  manner  it  decom- 
poses the  skin,  and  most  organic  substances,  by 
removing  their  water.  It  is  an  active  poison,  the 
best  antidote  being  copious  draughts  of  water  and 
chalk,  or  the  carbonate  of  soda  or  magnesia. 

Uses. — Sulphuric  acid  is  extensively  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  soda  from  common  salt;  also  in  the 
manufacture  of  chlorine  for  bleaching;  of  citric, 
tartaric,  acetic,  nitric  and  muriatic  acids,  sulphate  of 
soda,  sulphate  of  magnesia;  also  dyeing,  calico  print- 
ing, gold  and  silver  refining,  and  in  purifying  oils 
and  tallow.  Its  chemical  uses  are  innumerable.  It 
is  the  Hercules  of  the  acids.  Its  uses  in  agriculture 
have  been  before  stated. 

•This  acid  unites  with  bases  forming  the  sulphates, 
and  exists  in  nature  both  combined,  as  with  lime  in 
sulphate  of  lime,  or  gypsum,  and  free,  as  in  some 
streams  of  water  and  springs,  the  water  of  which  it 
renders  acid.  It  is  nearly  twice  as  heavy  as  water,  a 
gallon  weighing  thirteen  pounds.  The  test  for  sul- 
phuric acid  is  the  chloride  of  barium,  with  which  it 
forms  an  insolube  precipitate. 

Phosphoric  Acid. — Phosphorus  has  an  intense  affinity 
for  oxygen.  Place  a  bit  of  phosphorus,  of  the  size  of  a 
pea,  in  a  wine  glass;  cover  it  with  hot  water,  and 
direct  against  it  a  current  of  oxygen  gas,  it  will  burst 
into  violent  combustion  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
water.  When  a  match  is  burned,  the  white  smoke 
that  appears  is  phosphoric  acid  ;  it  is  always  produced 
when  phosphorus  is  burned  in  dry  air  or  oxygen  gas. 


230  WALL'S    MANUAL 

This  acid  condenses  into  solid  white  flakes  of  snowy 
appearance,  and  possesses  a  powerful  affinity  for 
water,  hissing  like  red-hot  iron  when  brought  in 
contact  with  it. 

Phosphoric  acid  is  of  the  highest  importance  in 
agriculture.  It  is  principally  from  its  presence  in 
bones  that  they  are  useful  as  a  manure.  There  are 
three  other  compounds  of  phosphorus  and  oxygen, 
but  they  are  of  interest  only  to  the  scientific  chemist. 

Nitric  Acid  or  Aquafortis. — This  acid  is  the  most 
powerful  of  the  chemical  compounds  of  oxygen  and 
nitrogen.  It  is  prepared  by  distilling  equal  weights 
of  sulphuric  acid  and  saltpetre.  Pure  nitric  acid  is  a 
colorless  liquid,  one -and- a- half  times  heavier  than 
water.  It  smokes  when  exposed  to  the  air,  and  is 
partially  decomposed  by  the  action  of  light,  nitrous 
acid  being  formed,  which  gives  it  a  yellow  color.  It 
has  an  intensely  acid  taste,  and  reddens  vegetable 
blues.  It  is  used  for  etching  on  copper,  for  assaying 
or  testing  metals,  and  as  a  solvent  for  tin  by  dyers 
and  calico  printers.  It  is  also  used  as  a  medicine,  as 
a  caustic  to  cleanse  and  purify  foul  ulcers.  In  conse- 
quence of  its  large  proportion  of  oxygen,  it  corrodes 
or  rusts  metals  with  great  energy,  and  hence  it  is  a 
most  powerful  oxydizing  agent. 

Nitric  acid  occurs  in  small  quantity  in  rainwater, 
especially  after  thunder-storms,  and  is  thought  to  be 
produced  in  the  air  by  lightnings,  which  combines 
the  gaseous  nitrogen  and  oxygen,  and  also  by  the 
oxydation  of  ammonia  in  the  air.  It  is  found  in 
nature  in  combination  with  the  alkalies  and  earths. 
Combined  with  potash  or  soda,  nitric  acid  is  a  valuable 
fertilizer.  It  hastens  and  increases  the  growth  of 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  231 

plants.  It  also  occasions  a  larger  produce  of  grain, 
and  this  grain,  as  when  ammonia  is  employed,  is  more 
nutritious  in  its  quality. — [Professor  Jackson. 

Ammonia  (  Volatile  Alkali}. — Three  combined  parts 
hydrogen  and  one  combined  part  nitrogen  form  ammo- 
nia. It  is  a  gas,  colorless,  irrespirable,  of  a  pungent, 
caustic  taste,  lighter  than  air,  and  possesses  strong 
alkaline  properties,  neutralizing  acids  and  changing 
vegetable  yellows  to  brown.  Being  a  gas,  it  is  called 
volatile  alkali,  to  distinguish  it  from  those  that  are 
fixed  or  solid.  The  great  source  of  the  ammonia  of 
commerce  is  the  liquor  of  the  gas-works. 

Ammonia  is  used  medicinally  in  various  ways.  It 
is  administered  internally  as  a  powerful  stimulant, 
and  applied  externally  as  a  counter-irritant. 

Ammonia  is  one  of  the  most  active  ingredients  of 
manure.  It  is  produced  by  the  putrefaction  of  all 
vegetable  and  animal  substances  containing  nitrogen. 
The  urine  of  animals  evolves  it  in  large  quantities.  If 
this  be  be  collected  in  tanks,  and  sulphuric  acid  (oil 
of  vitriol)  added,  fixed  sulphate  of  ammonia  is  formed 
in  the  liquid,  and  all  the  ammonia  is  thus  saved  for 
farm  use.  Sulphate  of  lime  (plaster)  and  sulphate  of 
iron  (green  vitriol)  also  serve  to  fix  ammonia.  As 
the  decomposition  goes  on,  which  forms  ammonia, 
carbonic  acid  is  also  generated,  which  unites  with  the 
former,  forming  the  carbonate  of  ammonia;  it  exists 
in  this  form  in  the  atmosphere. 

The  application  of  ammonia  increases  the  luxuri- 
ance of  vegetation  and  hastens  the  maturity  of  crops, 
It  enters  the  roots  of  plants  dissolved  in  water,  and, 
^according  to  Liebig,  is  absorbed  by  leaves  from  the 
air.  *» 


232  WALL'S    MANUAL 

Silicic  Acid — (Silica,  Sand'). — However  strange  it 
may  seem,  that  such  substances  as  sand  and  flint 
should  be  classed  among  the  acids,  yet  such  is  the  fact. 
At  high  temperatures,  silica  exhibits  powerful  acid 
properties,  and  neutralizes  bases,  forming  a  class  of 
salts — the  silicates.  Most  rocks  and  minerals  are 
silicates. 

Although  common  quartz  and  sand  are  totally 
insoluble  in  water,  yet  they  are  rendered  soluble  by 
the  action  of  the  alkalies ;  hence  the  reason  for  apply- 
ing potash  and  lime  to  soils  to  dissolve  their  silica. 
AYhen  liberated  from  its  combinations  by  the  agency 
of  the  air,  it  is  soluble  in  water;  hence  it  is  always 
present  in  springs.  Silica  is  necessary  to  the  growth 
of  vegetation,  and  exists  abundantly  in  many  plants  ; 
particularly  in  the  stalks  of  grains  and  grapes. 
It  is  this  which  gives  stiffness  to  their  stems,,  as 
the  skeleton  does  to  the  bodies  of  animals.  If  there 
is  a  deficiency  of  soluble  silica  in  the  soil,  the  grain 
stalks  will  be  weak,  and  liable  to  break  down  or 
lodge.  How  necessary,  then,  to  apply  substances 
which  will  dissolve  silica  or  sand. 


CHAPTEE    VIII. 

ANIMAL   AND    VEGETABLE    MANURES. 

Animal  maures  are  compounds  of  vegetable  matter 
and  salts.  They,  of  course,  contain  all  the  elements 
of  fertility.  The  immense  variety  of  substances  used 
and  commended  for  manures,  w^ould  seem  to  render 
the  subject  both  extensive  and  complicated.  It  is 
capable  .of  simplification. 


OF    AGRICULTURE  233 

First,  let  us  take  up  cow  manure.  Although  not 
as  rich  as  other  animal  manures,  yet  it  acts  very 
beneficially  on  all  soils.  According  to  the  analysis  of 
"Dana,"  a  cow  forms  daily  about  thirteen  pounds  of 
undecayed  vegetable  matter,  three  ounces  phosphate 
of  lime,  two  ounces  of  plaster  of  paris  and  two  ounces 
carbonate  of  lime;  or  in.  one  year  four  thousand 
eight  hundred  pounds  of  vegetable  matter,  seventy-one 
pounds  of  bone-dust,  forty-seven  pounds  of  lime, 
forty-seven  pounds  of  plaster,  twenty-five  pounds  of 
common  salt,  and  fifteen  pounds  of  sulphate  of  pot- 
ash. But  from  the  decay,  four  thousand  eight  hund- 
red of  well  masticated  vegetable  matter,  there  is 
evolved  about  one  hundred  and  seventy -nine  pounds 
of  ammonia,  if  it  is  carefully  preserved.  It  is  evident, 
then,  that  the  cow  is  a  great  manufacturer  of  humus, 
salts  and  ammonia.  The  main  value  of  the  cow 
manure  depends  upon  its  vegetable  matter  and 
ammonia;  the  other  salts  are  valuable,  for  they  are 
in  such  a  condition  as  to  be  readily  taken  up  by 
plants.  Ammonia  in  dung  is  that  organic  body  to 
which  is  to  be  attributed  its  chief  enriching  quality. 
The  humus  or  mold,  ammonia  and  salts,  each  act;  the 
acid  in  the  mold  acts  upon  the  salts,  such  as  lime, 
potash,  soda,  etc.,  alread}7  in  the  soil,  and  also  absorbs 
ammonia  from  the  air,  and  forms  carbonic  acid  in  its 
decay.  The  ammonia  acts  upon  the  silicates  in  the 
soil,  the  salts  act  in  a  similar  manner,  and  also  some- 
times neutralize  the  injurious  acids  in  the  soil. 

Stable  or  horse  manure  is  highly  valued  by  farmers, 
and  for  good  reasons — it  is  a  powerful  fertilizer.  But 
the  readiness  with  which  it  undergoes  fermentation, 
and  sends  off  ammonia,  makes  it  necessary  to  exer- 


234  WALL'S    MANUAL 

else  great  care  in  its  collection  and  preservation.  It 
has  the  same  constituents  as  cow  manure,  but  in  a 
more  concentrated  form,  and  with  a  much  larger 
proportion  of  phosphate  of  lime.  It  acts  in  a  similar 
manner  in  the  soil. 

The  "urine"  of  the  horse  is  a  still  more  powerful 
fertilizer,  and  is  generally  neglected  by  farmers.  It 
would  pay  to  make  plank  floors,  so  as  to  collect  the 
urine,  but  they  are  injurious  to  the  animals.  The 
most  common  and  practical  method  adopted  by 
farmers  is,  to  litter  their  stalls  with  leaves,  saw -dust, 
mold  or  swamp -muck.  These  substances  absorb  the 
urine  and  retain  its  ammonia  or  nitrogen.  Horse 
dung  heats  very  quickly,  and  should  therefore  be 
piled  in  such  a  manner  as  to  receive  at  any  time  a 
layer  of  woods-earth  or  mold  and  plaster.  The 
plaster  not  only  '-fixes  "  the  ammonia  in  the  manure, 
but  eats  up  the  straw,  leaves,  and  rough  litter.  A 
sprinkling  of  plaster  to  every  layer  of  manure  of  a 
foot's  thickness  is  sufficient. 

Hog-pen  manure  is  even  more  valuable  than  that 
of  the  horse,  on  account  of  the  large  amount  of 
ammonia-producing  materials  in  it,  and  should  be 
preserved  with  the  greatest  care.  Sheep  droppings, 
On  account  of  the  trouble  of  saving  the  manure,  are 
very  little  attended  to  by  farmers.  Where  a  farmer 
has  forty  or  fifty  head  of  sheep,  he  can  very  cheaply 
fertilize  poor  spots  on  his  farm  by  penning  and 
feeding  his  sheep  upon  them  during  the  night,  for  a 
week  or  two  at  a  time.  In  a  very  short  time  the 
spots  will  become  permanently  improved. 

POUDRETTE     AND     URATE. 

Poudrette    is    the    name    given    to     the     human 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  235 

excrements,  after  being  mixed  with  charcoal- dust 
or  charcoal  peat.  By  these  its  effluvia  is  absorbed, 
and  when  dried,  it  becomes  a  convenient  fertilizer 
for  use,  and  will  bear  remote  transportation.  Tho 
odor  is  sometimes  expelled  by  adding  quick  lime,  but 
this  removes  with  it  much  of  the  ammonia,  and,  on 
this  account,  should  be  avoided. 

Urate,  as  well  as  poudrette,  has  become  an  article  of 
commerce.  It  is  manufactured  in  large  cities  by 
collecting  the  urine,  and  mixing  with  it  one-sixth 
or  one- seventh  of  its  weight  of  ground  gypsum, 
(sulphate  of  lime),  and  allowing  it  to  stand  several 
days.  The  gypsum  absorbs  a  portion  of  the 
ammonia  in  the  urine,  after  which  it  is  dried 
and  the  liquid  is  thrown  away,  Only  a  part  of 
the  value  is  secured  by  this  operation.  It  is  some- 
times prepared  by  the  use  of  sulphuric  acid  (oil  of 
vitriol),  which  is  gradually  added  to  the  urine,  and 
forms  sulphate  of  ammonia,  which  is  afterwards 
evaporated  to  dry  ness.  This  secures  a  greater 
amount  of  the  valuable  properties  of  urine. 

NIGHT     SOIL. 

Treatment  of  Night  Soil. — There  has  recently  been 
introduced  into  our  large  cities  a  method  for  deodor- 
izing night  soils,  by  the  means  of  what  are  called 
*•' earth  closets."  These  earth  closets  add  greatly  to 
the  sanitary  condition  of  the  cities  in  which  they  have 
been  introduced,  and  contribute  vast  quantities  of 
the  richest  fertilizing  ingredients  to  agriculture : 
that,  too,  in  a  dried,  pulverized  and  portable  form,  so 
as  to  be  conveniently  applied  to  the  soil. 

We  have  not,  as  yet,  had  an  opportunity  of  testing 


23G  WALL'S    MANUAL 

this  fertilizer  upon  crops  cultivated  at  the  South  ; 
but  as  it  has  been  used  from  time  immemorial  by  the 
Chinese,  Japanese,  and  European  farmers,  we  may 
take  it  for  granted,  a  substance  which  has  been 
heretofore  a  fruitful  source  of  disease  in  our  cities, 
will  be  made  a  blessing  to  our  country. 

With  all  his  industry  and  efforts,  the  farmer  will 
find  he  can  manure  but  a  small  portion  of  his  farm 
annually,  and  a  great  many  contend  that  making  and 
collecting  manures  in  this  way  will  not  pay.  A  fatal 
error !  It  will  pay  to  keep  one  hand  and  a  horse 
and  cart,  to  do  nothing  else  but  haul  materials  for 
making  manure ;  this  hand  would  pay  better  than 
any  other  on  the  farm. 

As  we  said  before,  the  farmer  who  cultivates  a 
large  surface,  will  have  to  look  to  other  sources  for 
the  largest  portion  of  his  fertilizers.  This  renders  it 
necessary  that  we  should  take  up  and  discuss  some  of 
the  most  prominent  fertilizers  now  offered  for  sale  in 
the  markets.  First  upon  the  list,  WTC  find 

PERUVIAN     GUANO. 

Guano,  or  huana,  which  signifies  in  the  Peruvian 
language,  "  manure/'  is  now  well  known  to  be  the 
excrements  of  various  kinds  of  sea-fowl,  which 
resort  in  vast  numbers  to  small  uninhabited  islands, 
and  rocky  promontories,  on  the  coast  of  Africa  and 
South  America,  as  Avell  as  in  other  parts  of  the  globe. 
On  these  islands  their  excrements  have  accumulated 
for  ages;  in  some  instances,  on  the  coast  of  Peru 
(according  to  the  celebrated  traveler  Ilumbolt),  to 
the  depth  of  from  fifty  to  eighty  feet. 

The  Peruvian,  or  that  from  the  coast  of  Peru,  is 


OF    AGRICULTURE.  287 

esteemed  the  most  valuable,  and  for  good  reasons, 
as  there,  no  or  very  few  rains  fall  upon  the  islands 
from  which  it  is  collected,  and,  therefore,  very  few  of 
its  valuable  ingredients  are  lost,  It  has  been  used  by 
the  Peruvians,  from  time  immemorial,  as  a  manure, 
and  history  tells  us  the  Incas  used  it  before  the 
conquest  of  Peru  by  the  Spaniards.  Humbolt 
introduced  it  into  Europe,  on  his  return  from 
South  America,  in  1806J  but  it  was"  not  until  1840 
it  began  to  be  used  as  a  general  fertilizer  Jby  the 
English  farmers,  At  this  time,  over  300,000  tons 
are  imported  into  Great  Britain,  and  500,000  into  the 
United  States,  annually* 

ANALYSIS   OF   PERUYIAN  GUANO — (100   POUNDS), 

Water i 13vOO  =  13     per  cent.  Water. 

Organic  matter 36.00  =  36       "        '•     Organic  matter. 

Ammonia 17.00  =  17       "        "    Ammonia* 

Phosphates 23.50  =  23^  "        "    Phosphate  of  lime,  etc, 

Alkaline  salts...       ...,. ,9,50=    9*1"        "    Alkaline  salts, 

Sand 2.00  =    2       "        "    Sand. 

100  pounds, 

Guano,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  state,  from  the 
above  analysis,  may  be  applied,  with  advantage,  to 
almost  any  kind  of  soil,  and  to  all  the  crops  we 
cultivate.  It  contains  all  the  elements  necessary  for 
their  growth,  with  the  single  exception  of  mold. 
One  great  point  to  be  attended  to,  is  that  the  land 
should  be  in  good  tilth ;  otherwise,  the  tender  roots 
of  the  plants  will  meet  with  obstructions,  and  become 
crippled  in  their  growth,  Poor,  well  tilled  soils, 
receive  the  most  advantage  from  this  fertilizer,  as 
they  are  generally  deficient  in  the  very  ingredients 
supplied  by  the  guano. 

Taking  the  best  Peruvian  guano  as  a  standard, 
one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  pounds  to  the 
acre,  will  be  sufficient  to  mature  a  good  crop,  mixed 


238  WALL'S    MANUAL 

>vith  ten  times  ite  weight  of  well  rotted  woods-mold) 
muck,  or  swamp  mud,  Guano  should  never  bo 
mixed  with  unleached  ashes,  potash,  soda,  or  limo, 
for  these  salts  will  "set  free"  the  ammonia,  which 
will  be  lost  in  the  air,  and  greatly  diminish  the  effects 
of  the  manure. 

The  action  of  guanOj  Borne  farmers  contend, 
while  it  produces  largely  increased  crops  for  a  few 
years,  finally  exhausts  the  soil,  This  action  results 
from  a  kind  of  stimulating  influence  which  it  exerts 
upon  plants,  causing  in  them  an  artificial  growth,  by 
which  they  take  away  from  the  soil  more  fertilizing 
matter  than  the  guano  has  brought  into  it.  This  is 
true,  to  a  certain  extent.  Guano  contains  nothing 
which  is  not  real  food  for  plants.  It  is  a  well 
ascertained  fact,  that  an  ordinary  application  of 
guano,  gives  more  mineral  matter  to  the  soil  than 
the  resulting  crop  takes  away.  But  when  we  remember4 
that  guano  continues  its  effects  for  several  successive  crops, 
the  quantity  of  some  of  the  mineral  ingredients  of 
the  soil  may  be  diminished.  This  is  especially  true 
of  potash,  lime,  and  sulphuric  acid.  We  can  guard 
against  this  bad  effect  by  using  bone-dust  and  plaster 
in  combination  with  guano, 

The  long  continued  application  of  guano,  will 
exhaust  the  mineral  matter  in  the  soiL  "While  the 
guano  has  an  excess  of  ammonia,  it  has  no  humus 
or  mold  in  it,  and  as  the  caustic  character  of  the 
ammonia  hastens  the  decomposition  of  the  mold,  the 
loss  is  not  made  up  by  the  guano,  but  by  mixing 
well-leached  ashes,  plaster  and  mold  with  it,  there 
will  be  no  danger  in  its  application,  and  a  great 
improvement  in  the  soil  will  be  the  reward; 


OF    AGKI  CULTURE, 

One  of  the  very  best  methods  of  applying  guano 
is  in  connection  with  green  crops  of  peas,  closer",  etc^, 
plowed  in.  It  greatly  increases  the  growth  of  peas, 
clover,  lucerne,  etc.,  and  when  these  crops  are  plowed 
under,  they  add  largely  to  the  humus  and  ammonia 
in  the  soil.  Guano  has  the  power  to  act  upon  the 
vegetable  matter,  and  convert  it  more  rapidly  into 
humus  or  mold,  than  it  would  have  done  if  the  guano 
had  not  been  applied.  It  also  causes  the  plants,  by 
increased  vigor,  to  thrust  their  raots  down  deeply 
into  the  subsoil,  and  thus  bring  up  an  increased 
supply  of  mineral  matter,  in  the  proper  condition  to 
feed  succeeding  crops. 

A  great  deal  of  fraud  has  been  practiced  in  the 
sale  of  guana  The  best  safe-guard  against  being' 
imposed  upon,  is  to  buy  only  from  reliable  men, 
regularly  engaged  in  the  business  of  selling  it.  One 
or  two  simple  tests  may  be  useful. 

First  test.  Burn  one  hundred  grains  to  ashes  in 
an  iron  spoon  or  ladle ;  the  remaining  ashes  should 
not  weigh  more  than  from  thirty-five  to  forty  grains, 
and  should  be  nearly  all  soluble  in  dilute  muriatic  acid. 

Second  test.  Hub  a  little  guano  with  a  few  grains 
of  freshly  slacked  lime,  and  if  a  strong  odor  of 
hartshorn,  or  ammonia  is  not  given  off,  the  quality 
is  not  good. 

There  are  a  great  many  other  kinds  of  guano 
besides  the  Peruvian,  which  have  been  used  very 
successfully  by  farmers  in  the  Eastern  and  Middle 
States,  but  it  has  been  the  experience  of  the  best 
farmers,  that  the  pure  Peruvian  pays  the  best, 
although  the  price  is  higher.  The  Pacific,  Sea- Fowl 
and  Kedonda,  are  all  favorably  ksown  ;  while  not 


240 

as  rich  in  ammonia  as  the  Peruvian,  they  contain  a 
larger  proportion  of  the  phosphate  of  lime,  and  act 
very  well  on  crops. 

Swamp  mud,  or  well- rotted  peat,  or  woods  mold, 
when  composted  with  guano  and  the  superphosphate 
of  lime,  forms  a  very  valuable  fertilizer.  The  farmer 
can  haul,  at  any  time  it  suits  his  convenience,  the 
muck  or  mold,  and  deposit  it  upon  the  wornout  spots 
in  his  field.  "When  he  wishes  to  manure  the  land,  if 
he  will  add  guano  and  superphosphate  of  lime,  at  the 
rate  of  one  bushel  of  guano  and  one  bushel  of  super- 
phosphate to  twenty  bushels  of  mold,  he  will  have  a 
rich  manure.  A  handful  of  this  mixture  in  a  hill  of 
corn  will  have  a  marked  effect. 

Again  :  If  the  farmer  mixes  one  bushel  of  super- 
phosphate of  lime,  two  bushels  of  strong  wood  ashes, 
and  one  bushel  of  lime,  with  twenty  bushels  of  muck 
or  mold,  he  will  have  a  valuable  fertilizer.  Again  :  If 
he  uses  five  bushels  of  ashes  and  one  bushel  of  lime, 
with  thirty  bushels  of  muck  or  mold,  he  will  have  a 
good  manure.  The  lime  and  potash  of  the  ashes  acts 
upon  the  vegetable  matter  in  the  muck  or  mold, 
neutralizes  the  acids  in  it,  and  causes  quick  decompo- 
sition of  the  vegetable  matter,  converting  it  into 
mold. 

A  great  variety  of  vegetable  manures  may  be 
formed  upon  the  spots  of  ground  which  need  them 
most,  if  the  former  bears  in  mind  the  principle,  or 
fact,  that  a  small  amount  of  lime,  potash,  or  soda,  will 
act  upon  an  indefinite  quantity  of  vegetable  matter,  in 
the  compost  heap,  causing  quick  fermentation,  which 
ends  in  the  entire  decomposition  of  the  vegetable 
matter. 


OF    AGRICULTURE. 

GHAPTEE    IX. 


241 


USEFUL   TABLES   FOR   FARMERS. 

The  following  table  will  be  useful  for  readily 
determining  the  number  of  hills,  plants,  trees,  etc., 
which  may  be  grown  on  an  acre  of  land : 


DI8TAWCB8  APART. 


NO.  PLANTS,    ETC. 
TO  AN  ACR1. 


3  inches  by  3  inches 696,900 

4  "         "4         "     392,040 

6  "         "6         "     174,240 

9  "         "9         "     77,440 

1  foot     "     1       foot 43,500 

1%  feet     "    1%   feet 19,300 

2  '    1       foot 21,780 

2  "        "2       feet 10,890 

2^  "         "     2^     "     6,909 

1     1       foot 14,520 

8  "        "2      feet 7,200 

5  "        "    3        "     4,840 

VA  "     ;;  &A  ;• 3,555 

4  "         "1       foot 10,890 

4  "    2       feet 5,445 

4  '         "    3               3,630 

4  "    4               2,722 

*1A  '         "     VA     "     2,151 

5  '     1       foot 8712 

5  "        "    2       feet 4,356 

fi  "    3          '     2,904 

5                                    '     2,178 

5  "         "5         "     1742 

&A  "         "    5^     "     1J417 

6  •'     6          '     1210 

6^  "         "     6^     "     1031 

7  '     7               888 

8  "     8               680 

9  "     9               537 

10  '         "10.     "     435 

11  '         "11         "     360 

12  '         "12         "     302 

13  13         "     257 

14  '14         "     222 

W  15         "     193 

16  10         "     

IP  ^  "  ::::::::::::::::::::::::::r;:::::::::::::::::r  & 

18  18         "     {34 

19  19         "     120 

*)  20         «     108 

25  25         "     69 

30  30         »     ...               '.  48 

3»  33        "    Jo 

40  40        '«    27 

50  50        •"    17 

60  60        "    12 

»  68 


242  WALL'S    MANUAL 

This  table  can  be  used  also  to  determine  how  many 
piles  of  manure  to  a  load,  it  will  take  to  spread  on  an 
acre,  at  any  of  the  above  distances  apart. 

TABLES. 

The  following  tables  may  often  be  useful  to  farmers 
for  reference. 

Money. — The  -'prices  current"  of  foreign  markets 
are  frequently  quoted  in  newspapers,  in  accordance 
with  foreign  currencies,  hence  these  tables  are  given. 

ENGLISH    MONET. 

4  Farthings  make  1  penny =  $0.02  1-00 

12  Pence  make  1  shilling =    0.24  1-5 

2(i  Shillings  (a  sovereign)  make  1  pound =.    4.84 

•21        "  make  1  guinea =    5.10 

.->        "  "      1  crown =    1.21 

FRENCH    MONEY. 

1  Fnmo =  $0.18  3-5 

5  Franc-piece =-=    0.93 

1  Crown, =    1.10 

1  Napoleon  (20  francs) =    3.85 

OTHKR   FOREIGN   MONEY. 

1  Florin  (Austria) —  $0.48 

1  Rupee  (Bombay) =  0.50 

1  Thaler  (Prussia) =  0.73 

1  Ruble  (Russia) =  0.75 

1  Ducat  (Germany) ==.  2.23l^ 

1   Ducat  (Holland) =  2.27M 

1  Doubloon  (Mexico) =  5.53% 

Weights. — Avoirdupois  weight  is  used  in  all  business 
transactions.  The  long  ton,  of  two  thousand  two 
hundred  and  forty  pounds,  has  generally  passed  out 
of  use  in  this  country,  except  at  the  custom-house. 

TABLE   OF   AVOIRDUPOIS   WEIGHTS. 

10  Drams make  1  ounce  (oz.) 

1C  Ounces "      1  pound  (lb.) 

25  Pounds '        1  quarter  (qr.) 

4  Quarters  (100  Ibs.) '        1  hundred  (cwt.) 

20  Hundred  weight  (2000  Ibs.) '        I  ton  (T.) 

56  Pounds  of  butter "      1  firkin 


56 
14 

100 
196 

200 
560 

(id 


of  hay '  1  truss 

(an  English  weight)....  "  1  stone 

of  fish "  1  quintal 

of  flour "  1  barrel 

of  beet  or  pork '  1  barrel 

of  wheat "  1  quarter  (English) 

of  wheat '  1  bushel  (United  States) 

of  wheat '  I  bushel  (English) 


OF     AGRICULTURE. 


243 


Measures. — The  standard  of  dry  measures  in  the 
United  States  is  the  Winchester  bushel,  containing 
2150  2-5  cubic  inches.  A  circular  measure,  eighteen 
and  a  half  inches  in  diameter  and  eight  inches  deep, 
holds  a  bushel. 

PET   MEASURE. 

2  Pints make  1  quart 

8  Quarts , "  1  peck 

4  Pecks "  1  bushel 

5  Bushels  of  corn  (shelled,  South) 1  barrel 

8  Bushels  of  wheat  (English) 1  quarter 

Liquid  Measure. — The  wine-gallon  is  the  standard 
by  which  liquids  are  generally  bought  and  sold.  It 
contains  two  hundred  and  thirty- one  cubic  inches. 

COMMON  OR  LIQUID   MEASURE. 

4      Gills make  1  pint 

2  Pints "     1  quart 

4      Quarts "     1  gallon 

31^  Gallons "     1  barrel 

42      Gallons "     1  tierce 

63      Gallons M     1  hogshead 

LONG  OR  LINEAR   MEASURE. 

12      Inches make  1  foot 

3  Feet 1  yard 

5%  Yards  (16^  feet) 1  rod,  pole,  or  perch 

40      Rods  (220  yards) 1  furlong 

8      Furlongs  (1760  yards) 1  mile 

4  Inches hand 

6      Feet fathom 

4      Poles  (66  feet) chain 

80      Chains mile 

3      Miles league 

LAND  AND  SQUARE  MEASURE. 

144    Square  inches make  1  square  foot 

9                  feet 1                 yard 

30*<              yards 1                po]e 

40                  poles 1                 rood 

16                      "    1               chain 

10                  chains 1              acre 

640                  acres '     1  square  mile 

CUBIC,    OR  SOLID  MEASURE. 

• 

1728      cubic  inches  (12x12x12) make  1  cubic  foot. 

27         "      feet "      1      "    yard 

128         "        "  (8  ft,  long,  4  ft,  high,  4  ft,  wide) "      1  cord. 

&%     "       "of  stone  (16^  ft.  long,  1%  ft.  wide  and 

Jft.  high) «     1  solid  perch, 


244  WALL'S    MANUAL 

A  FEW  SIMPLE  AND  USEFUL  EULES. 

I.  To   calculate  simple  interest  at  six  per  cent — 
Multiply  the  dollars  by  half  the  number  of  months, 
and  the  result  will  be  the  interest  in  cents.     For  odd 
days,   multiply  the   dollars  by  the  whole  number  of 
days,    and   divide  by  sixty — the  result  will  be   the 
interest  in  cents. 

For  any  other  rate  of  interest,  as  seven  or  eight  per 
cent. — Multiply  the  dollars  by  the  rate  per  cent. — the 
result  will  be  the  interest  for  one  year  in  cents.  This, 
divided  by  twelve,  is  the  interest  for  one  month.  The 
interest  for  one  month,  divided  by  thirty,  gives  the 
interest  for  one  day.  From  these,  the  interest  for 
any  period  may  be  calculated. 

II.  To  determine  how  many  bushels  a  given  space 
will   hold. — Multiply   the   length,  width  and   depth, 
measured  in  feet.     This  will   give   the   contents  in 
cubic  feet.     Now,    as   there   are   two   thousand  one 
hundred  and  fifty  cubic  inches  in  a  bushel  and  one 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  twenty- eight  in  a  foot, 
these  numbers  stand  (nearly)  to  each  other  as  four  to 
five.     Hence,  multiply  the  cubic  feet  of  the  given 
space  by  four  and  divide  by  five,  will  give  the  bushels 
(very  nearly). 

Example. — A  crib  eight  feet  long,  five  feet  wide, 
and  six  feet  deep,  contains  (8x5x6)  =  240  cubic 
feet,  then  240  x  4  =  960  cubic  feet,  which,  divided  by 
five,  gives  one  hundred  and  ninety- two  bushels  as  the 
contents  of  the  crib,  very  nearly. 


OF     AGRICULTURE.  245 

EXPLANATION    OF    TEEMS. 

Absorb — To  soak  up   a  liquid  or  gas,  to   take   sub- 
stances from  the  air,  or  from  watery  solutions. 
Abstract — To  take  from. 
Acid — Sour,  acrid;  a  sour  substance. 
Agriculture — The  art  of  cultivating  the  soil. 
Alkali — The  direct  opposite  of  an  acid,  with  which 

it  has  a  tendency  to  unite,  neutralizing. 
Alumina — The  base  of  clay. 
Analysis — Separating    into    its    primary  parts   any 

compound  substance. 
Carbonate — A  compound,  consisting  of  carbonic  acid 

and  a  base  (metallic  oxyde). 
Caustic — Burning. 

Chloride — A  compound  containing  chlorine. 
Decompose — To    separate    the   constituents    of   any 

body  from  their  combinations  ;  to  decay  or  rot. 
Digestion — The  decomposition  of  food  in  the  stomach 

and  intestines  of  animals.     (Agricultural.) 
Fermentation — A  kind  of  decomposition. 
Gas — Air ;  aeriform  matter. 
Ingredient — Component  part  of  any  substance. 
Inorganic — Mineral,    or   earthy ;    not   organized    by 

animal  or  vegetable  life. 
Mulching — Covering  the  soil  with  litter,  leaves,  or 

straw. 
Neutralize — To  overcome  or  destroy   the  properties 

or  effects  of. 
Organic  matter — That  kind  of  matter  whicn  possesses 

or  has  possessed  life, 


246  WALL'S    MANUAL 

Oxyde — A  compound  of  oxygen  with  an  clement. 
Phosphate — A    compound    of    phosphoric   acid    with 

a  base. 

Pungent — Sharp  ;  acrid. 
Putrefaction — Hotting. 

Saturate — To  fill  the  pores  of  any  substance,  as  a 
sponge  with  water,  or  charcoal  with  ammonia. 

Silicate — A  compound  of  silicic  acid  with  a  base. 

Soluble — Capable  of  being  dissolved  in  water. 

Saturated  Solution — One  which  contains  as  much  of 
the  foreign  substances  as  it  is  capable  of  holding. 

Sulphate — A  compound   of  sulphuric  acid  and  a  base. 

Vapor — Moist  air — see  gas. 

END. 


Errata. 

On  page  19,  first  line,  germs  should  read  gums. 

On  page  34,  eighth  line,  Phospllc  should  read  Phosphoric. 

On  page  111,  second  line,  Planting  in  should  read  Plowing  in. 

On  page  212,  first  line  in  last  paragraph,  difficulty  should 
read  deficiency. 

On  page  145,  twentieth  line,  congulated  should  read  coagu- 
lated. 


INDEX. 


PAGE. 

ABSORBENTS 45 

ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  MANURES 232 

Analysis  of  Peruvian  Guano 237 

Night  Soil 235 

Peruvian  Guano 237 

Poudrette  and  Urate 234 

A  STATEMENT  OF  LEADING  FACTS 38 

CARE  OF  STOCK 177 

Horses 177 

Cattle 179 

Hogs 179 

Bad  Habits 179 

CHEMICAL  INGREDIENTS  OF  KOCKS  AND  SOILS 191 

Elementary  Bodies 192 

Bases 193 

Experiments— Silica 193 

Metalloid  Compounds — Salts 194 

Simple  Minerals 196 

CHEMICAL  TREATMENT  OF  THE  SOIL 83 

Analysis  of    Ashes  of  Crops 24 

CHEMISTRY  AS  APPLIED  TO  THE  SOIL — 

The  Best  Soil— How  Formed 189 

Formation  of  Deposits , 190 

CONCLUSION  TO  PART  1 179 

COTTON— 

Its  Origin 62 

The  Disease!  of— Kust 67 

Sore  Shin 68 

•  Rot 68 

Blight 70 

Insecti  btneficial  and  injurious  to 71 

11* 


250  INDEX. 

COTTON — Continued.  ?A«E 

Insects  Frequenting 71 

Insects  which  feed  upon  the  Stalk 73 

Insects  found  on  the  Leaf. 74 

Caterpillar 75 

Boll  Worm 77 

Insects  beneficial  to 80 

Planting,  Cultivating  and  Gathering 87 

Kind  of  Soil 87 

Planting '. 89 

Mode  of  Planting 90 

Culture 91 

Selection  of  Seed 92 

Analysis 98 

Cotton  Seed  as  a  fertilizer 94 

Caution  to  Planters 101 

Experiments  of  Rains,  18G8 101 

CULIVATION  OF  WHEAT,  EYE  AND  OATS — 

Preparation  of  the  Soil 102 

Wheat 104 

Rye 106 

Oats 106 

DRAINING 20 

ERRATA •::'.:»'£ 247 

EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS i'.-.-i 245 

HAY  CROP— 

Clover.., 112 

Grasses ..V. 114 

Pasture? 116 

Experiments 117 

How  PLANTS  VEGETATE  AND  GROW 15 

Germination 16 

Roots 10 

The  Stem 19 

Th«  Leaf. 20 

Flowers  and  Fruits ,. ., , 22 

INBIAN  CO»K il 

INTRODUCTION 3 


INDEX.  251 

PAGE. 

MECHANICAL  TREATMENT  or  THE  SOIL 23 

MINERAL  FERTILIZERS — THEIR  ACTION  UPON  THE  SOIL....  211 

Silex 211 

Lime 212 

Gypsum — Sulphate  of  Lime  or  Plaster 215 

Marl 215 

'    Potash 216 

Soda 216 

Magnesia 217 

Sulphur 217 

Phosphorus 218 

Analysis  of  Bones 219 

Calcined  Bones 220 

Sugar-house  Eefuse 220 

Chilian  Saltpetre,  or  Common  Salt 222 

'Columbian  Guano 222 

Quartz 223 

Artificial  Silicates 224 

Acids 225 

MUCK,  OR  VEGETABLE  MOLD......... 46 

MUTUAL  ACTION  OF  THE  ORGANIC  AND  INORGANIC  ELE- 
MENTS or  THE  SOIL 206 

PEA  CROP 107 

Varieties 108 

Soil 108 

Planting,  or  Sowing . 109 

POTATO  CROP — 

Climate 117 

Soil 118 

Varieties 118 

Plant  Beds 119 

Preparation  of  Beds 120 

Sowing  the  Seed..... 121 

Preparation  of  Soil 122 

Planting 123 

Culture 124 

Digging 137 


252  INDEX. 

POTATO  CROP — Continued.  PAGE. 

Selections  for  Planting 138 

Degeneration 138 

The  Potatoes 139 

Preparation  of  Land  for  Planting 139 

PREPARATION  OF  FOOD  FOR  STOCK , 174 

PROPERTIES  AND  CHEMICAL  ACTION  OF  THE  MINERAL 

INGREDIENTS  OF  THE  SOIL 197 

Naming  Acids 198 

Glass — Analysis  of  Granite 199 

REASONS  WHY  AGRICULTURAL  BOOKS  SHOULD  BE  READ 6 

RECAPITULATION 159 

RELATION  BETWEEN  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS 165 

RICE— 

Varieties 156 

Cultivation  of  Low  land  Rice 165 

Cultivation  of  Up  land  Rice 157 

SORGHUM  CANES 142 

Manufacture  of  Syrup  from  its  Juice 144 

SOURCES  FROM  WHICH  PLANTS  DERIVE  THBIR  NOURISH- 
MENT      11 

SUGAR  CANB — 

Saccharine  Officinarum 146 

Ribbon  Cane — Creole  or  Malabar  Cane 147 

Varieties 147 

Soil 148 

Seed  Cane ; 148 

Preservation  of  Seed  Cane 148 

Preparation  for  Planting 149 

Planting 151 

Cultivating 152 

Harvesting 153 

Analysis  of  Ashes  of  Sugar  Cane 154 

Manures  for  Canes 154 

TOBACCO  CROP — 

Climate , 117 

Soil 118 

Varieties ».,... 118 


INDEX.  253 

TOBACCO  CROP — Continued.  PAGE 

Plant  Beds 120 

Sowing  the  Seed 121 

Preparation  of  Soil 122 

Planting 123 

Culture 124 

Priming  or  Topping 124 

Cutting 126 

Curing 126 

The  Chemistry  of  Curing 127 

Stripping  and  Handling 128 

Cultivation  of  Cuba  Tobacco 131 

TURNIP  CROP 141 

TABLES  FOR  FARMERS 241 

Money 242 

Weights 242 

Measures 243 

USEFUL  KDLES 244 

VALUE  OF  CROPS  AS  FOOD 168 

VEGETABLE  OR  ORGANIC  CONSTITUENTS  OF  THE  SOIL 201 

Humus,  or  Vegetable  Mold 205 


ALLISON  BROTHERS 

Importers  and  Dealers  in 

HARDWARE, 

GUNS,  CUTLEBY,  STEEL, 

CASTINGS,  NAILS,  MAINS, 

And  every  description  of 

Agricultural  Implements 


AND 


Farming  Tools. 

Mechanics'  and    Builders'    Hardware,  Plows, 
Hoes,  Anvils,  Bellows,  Vises,  etc. 


ROLE  AGE.NTS  FOR  HILL  MAN  BROTHERS  &  SONS' 

CELEBRATED  TENNESSEE  CHARCOAL 

AND  COMMON   IRON.     E.  CARVER 

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LINTERS.     LANE   & 

BODLEY'S  STEAM 
,  ENGINES. 

270  Front  St.,  Memphis,  Tenn. 


CENTRAL  DEPOT  FOR  THE  SOUTHWEST 


RHODES' 


SUPERPHOSPHATE  OF 


THE    STANDARD    MANURE    AND    FERTILIZER,    THE 

OLDEST    AND    MOST    RELIABLE    ON    THE 

AMERICAN    CONTINENT. 

Also  of  the 

ORCHILLA.    GTJA^O. 

Detailed  information  furnished  on  application  to  the 

SOLE  AGENTS, 

JENSEN    &    ROESSEL, 
COTTON  FAOTOES  AND  COMMISSION  MEBOHANTS, 

No?!.  102  and  104  Peters,  late  New  Levee,  and  32  and  34 
Commerce  Streets, 

!N~ew   Orleans,   Louisiana. 


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DEALEBS    IN 


Seeds,  Implements,  Fertilizers, 

377-379,  Main  Street, 

Memphis,  Tenn. 


Also  Agents  for 


RAW  BONE  FERTILIZER, 

.Made  from  the  Blood,  Meat  and  Bone  of 
the  Animal. 

Price  $6  per  Barrel;  $55  per  Ton  of  2000  Ibs. 


For  187O. 

DR.  M,  W,  PHILIPS,  Editor-in-Chief, 

Assisted  by  a  Corps  of  ABLE  WRITERS,   PRACTI- 
CAL FARMERS  and  HORTICULTURISTS, 

It  has  reached  its  FOURTH  VOLUME,  and  is  an 

UNPARALLELED   SUCCESS. 
XJSSTULO  ZLO,OOO. 

It  has  become  the  Standard  Agricultural  Paper 
for  the  Southwest. 

Every  FARMER  should  read  it. 
Every  FARMER'S  SON  should  read  it. 
Every  FARMER'S  WIFE  should  read  it. 
Every  FARMER'S  DAUGHTER  should  read  it. 
Every  STOCK  RAISER  should  read  it 
Every  FRUIT  GROWER  should  read  it. 
Every  GARDENER    should   read    it. 
It  will  teach  you  how  to  save  labor. 
It  will  teach  you  how  to  save  money. 
It  will   teach   you  how  to  make  money. 
It  will  teach  you  how  to  raise  stock. 
It  will  teach  you  how  to  economise. 
It  will  teach  you  how  to  live. 

[From  the  New  Orleans  Picayune.] 

THE  SOUTHERN  FARMER.—  This  sterling  and  useful  Southern  journal  of 
Agriculture,  edited  by  the  veteran  and  reliable  Dr.  M.  W.  PHILIPS,  began 
a  new  year  with  January,  and  has  an  increase  in  the  variety  and  amount 
of  its  matter.  The  study  of  the  experience  of  others,  is  of  the  greatest 
value  to  the  farmer  and  planter,  who  should  avail  himself  of  it  as  far  as 
he  can,  and  in  the  SOUTHERN  FARMER  he  will  find  it  ;  for  the  numerous 
contributors  to  that  journal  are  among  the  most  candid,  enterprising 
and  fairest  of  all  those  who  are  trying  to  improve  the  agriculture  of  the 
South. 


TERMS,  S2  J±   YE.AR. 

Send.    Ten    Cents    for   a  Specimen    Copy. 
Local  Agents  and  Canvassers  wanted,  and  good  pay 
given.     Address 


3 61  Main  st.,  Memphis,  Tenn. 


THE  SOUTHERN  FARMER  AGENCY 


THE  writer,  M.  W.  PHILIPS,  being  now  one  of  the  fixtures,  and  so  long 
as  the  agriculturist  requires  it,  and  can  find  no  better  a  servant,  would 
inform  subscribers,  and  others,  who  desire  anything  in  the  agricultural 
line  —  from  a  dog  chain  to  a  steam  engine  —  that  he  will,  to  the  Lest  of  his 
ability  to  purchase  for  them,  and  will  always  strive  to  obtain  information 
touching  the  various  machines  from  those  who  are  experts.  The  per 
cent,  is  not  the  main  question,  and  old  friends  will  bear  us  out  that  we 
have  ever  been  actuated  by  a  desire  to  be  of  use. 

MACHINERY  FOR  SOUTHERN  FARM  LIFE. 

Having  moved  to  the  Southwest  in  1830,  and  settled  in  a  new  Country, 
where  mills  and  mechanics  were  not  ;  although  immediately  from  school, 
we  were  forced  to  use  a  talont  given  to  us.  Thus  forced,  our  mind  was 
drawn  out  on  mechanism,  and  we  tried  all  labor-saving  machinery  we 
could  procure.  Thus  apprenticed  and  serving  our  full  time  as  such,  we 
think  we  are  somewhat  prepared  to  select  Gin  Stands,  Presses,  Running 
Gear,  Mills,  etc.,  etc.  ;  and,  from  our  particular  bias  to  test  thus,  we  have 
bought,  used  and  laid  aside  three  different  Presses,  several  Gin  Stands, 
Mills  and  Running  Gear.  We  will  give  our  best  attention  and  discretion 
to  a  selection.  Our  only  brother,  Col.  Z.  A.  P.,  is  fully  posted  up  on  Steam 
Engines,  and  we  will  avail  ourself  of  his  knowledge.  We  have  had  many, 
the  most  of  what  is  justly  termed  improved  stock,  and,  although  our 
prejudices  may  have  swerved  us,  yet  we  are  honest  in  our  convictions 
and  will  try  to  select  the  best. 


PRICES  OF  BLOODED  STOCK,  &c. 

owing  are  the 
New  York  and  elsewhere  : 


The  following  are  the  prices  of  Blooded  Stock,  etc.,  in  Pennsylvania, 
el 


CATTLE. 


Durham,  age  and  quality  .....  $60@300  I  Alderney,  age  and  quality.  ..$60(o>300 
Ayrshire,    "      "          "    "  .....  60@250  |  Jersey,         "      "          "      ...  60@.3UO 


HOGUS. 


Chester  Whites,  6  to  8  weeks  old...  .$30 

Improved  Ohio  Chester 35 

Windsors  (Prince  Albert  Suftblks)  30 


Essex  .........................................  $30 

Berkshire  ...................................  25 

$2  for  boxing. 


Spanish  (pairs)  ............................  $  8  |  White  Aylesbury  Ducks  ...............  $12 

Golden  Hamburgs  .......................  15  |  Brahrnas  ....................................    7 

We  have  access  to  a  large  variety  of  Fowls,  such  as  Rouen,  Cayuga 
and  other  Ducks,  Breman  and  other  Geese,  Bronze  and  White  Turkeys  ; 
any  of  which  we  will  order.      We  are  anxious  to  make  our  Southern 
homes  more  interesting. 

CARAFES. 

Each.  Per  100 

Concord  .......................................................................  25c.  $18  <K) 

Hartford  .......................................................................  25c.  20  00 

Scuppernongs  ..............................................................  25c. 

SEEDS. 

All  the  choice  Seeds  (Corn,  Cotton,  Grass,  Ramie  Plants,  etc.)  we  shall 
be  prepared  to  fill  for  next  planting.     Orders  solicited. 
Address: 

M.  W.  PHILIPS  &  CO., 

361  MAIN  STREET,  MEMPHIS,  TENN, 


(MMOmiTED  IRIPIE  SUPERPIOSPIUTE 


-AND— 


THIS  valuable  Manure  has  been  accepted  by  the  most  experienced 
and  practical  Farmers  of  the  South,  as  the  most  efficient  and  reliable 
Fertilizer  known.  Three  hundred  pounds  per  acre,  will  double  crops  of 
COTTON  and  CORN,  and  treble  WHBAT  and  OAT  crops. 

The  AMMONIATED  TRIPLE  SUPERPHOSPHATE 

Will  NOT  RUST  Wheat  and  Cotton,   and  in  this  respect  is  unlike  most 
commercial  manures*  and  superior  to  all  others  in  use.     The  Planters  of 
the  South  and  West,  will  be  convinced  of  the  great  value  of  this  Manure 
by  a  single  application  to  COTTON,  CORN,  WHEAT  or  OATS. 
For  sale  by 

E,  H.  MARTIN  &  CO.,  Sole  Agents, 

233  Front   Street,   Memphis,  Tenn. 


"  WE  have  handled  as  many  varieties  of  Fertilizers  as  any  Farmer  in 
Dixie,  and  we  give  our  opinion,  that  the  cornponate  parts  of  the 

AMMONIATED  TRIPLE  SUPERPHOSPHATE 

Are  all  and  each  eminently  valuable,  and  the  Compound  cannot  fail 
to  give  satisfaction." 

EDITORS  SOUTHERN  FARMER. 


EH 
9     ii* 

-DEALERS  IN- 

Hardware  and   Agricultural  Implements, 

232  Front  St.,  Memphis,  Fenn. 


South  western  Publishing  Co, 

BLANK  BOOK  MANUFACTURERS, 

PAPER    DEALERS, 
Printers,     Booksellers, 

it 

STAFIONJZftS,  &c., 

No.  361  Main  St., 


Having  largely  added  to  our  stock  of  Print- 
ing Types  and  Machinery,  we  are  enabled  to 
execute  all  kinds  of  Printing,  on  short  notice> 
and  at  the  lowest  prices. 

'  m* COUNTRY  ORDERS  PROMPTLY  AT- 
TENDED TO. 


IMPROVED   ATTACHMENTS 

For  Opening  Furrows  and  Cultivating  the  Growing  Crops. 
Manufactured  at 

MUlIIl'S  FLOW  FAGZOBY, 

MEMPHIS,  TENNESSEE. 

Sold  by  citv  and  country  merchants  in  all  the  Southern  States.    For 
circulars  and  further  information,  address 

J.  H.  MITJRIPEK,  .A-gt.,  JAMES  W.  MURFEE, 

MEMPHIS,  TENN.              Inventor  and  Patentee. 
REFF.RF.KCB— Dr.  M.  W.  PHILIPS,  Editor  Southern  Farmer. 

B.  B.  Will   &  CO., 


—DEALERS  ir— 


SEEDS,  FERTILIZERS, 

FRUIT    TREES, 

AGRICULTURAL    IMPLEMENTS,    &c.,    &c., 

232  Main  St.,  Memphis,  Tenn. 


-AGENTS  FOR 


BAUGH'S  RAW-BONE  SUPERPHOSPHATE,  BUCKEYE  CULTIVATOR 

OR  SULKY  PLOW,  EXCELSIOR  REAPER  AND 

MOWER,    Etc.,   Etc.,  Etc. 

Keep  constantly  on  hand  all  kinds  of  Fertilizers,  Agricultural  Imple- 
jnents,  Seeds,  etc. 


GENERAL  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA— BERKELEY 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or  on  the 

date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


AUG28195 


D    ./  D  ./•/••• 


